The Study of Anthropology and the Humanities Essay -- exploring the hu

The homoities are a broad multidisciplinary field of study where its disciplines arent in just one department. Therefore, analyse the humanities correlates to the study of anthropology. Simply put, anthropology is the study of humanity and the origins of human beings. Learning about the humanities can help those studying anthropology because the humanities looks into understanding and exploring the human condition. There is an idea of culture that is used to describe what humans do. Anthropology explores what culture is, how it influences society, and why the idea of culture is important. Studying anthropology also looks into the various cultures around the human race and the diversity that makes the human race. A basic concern for anthropologists is what defines human life and its origins. How has the evolutionary past of humans influenced the contemporary culture? Reading R. fannys The Book of genesis (Illustrated) opens doorways for studying anthropology because it lo oks into the history and beginning of public. Studying the humanities relates to the study of anthropology because the graphic novel The Book of Genesis depicts ancient human culture. Crumbs 2009 graphic novel helps snap off understand todays society and comprehend how humans live today. The study of man and civilization connects with new(prenominal) subjects of education because it involves the reasoning for life today. The real effect of Anthropology is rather to lighten than increase the strain of learning (Tylor preface). When a scholar knows of early history, he knows how humankind arose and is able to take a better hold of himself and his own society. For example, if a paleontologist is studying the theory of the how humanity began, a book that depicts anc... ...here is a better comprehension of today. Studying different historical texts provides insight into features of the past which some anthropologists may first find difficult to comprehend or examine. Humanities turn over with society and serve as a basis for studies in other fields, like anthropology. Anthropologists use methods in humanities to better understand society, people, and culture. In read to understand such a complex system of people, a history of culture and humanity must be taken into account. Works CitedCrumb, Robert. The Book of Genesis Illustrated by R. Crumb New York Norton, 2009Lassiter, Luke E. Invitation to Anthropology. Lanham, MD AltaMira, 2009. Print.Linton, Ralph. The Study of Man An Introduction. New York D. Appleton-Century, 1936. Print.Tylor, Edward B. Anthropology. Ann Arbor University of Michigan, 1960. Print.

The Importance of Settings in Great Expectations Essay example -- Engl

The Importance of Settings in immense ExpectationsThe purpose of set is to exit a physical background for thenarrative and it must enhance or advance the plot. In GreatExpectations devil has varied and contrasted his settings (onpurpose), to make the changes in characters personalities more(prenominal)appropriate. For example Pip goes from a poor, working class boy fromthe marshes, to a socialite of the upper class who is arrogant andproud in London. In his choice of setting the Tempter has made sure thathis settings tie in with his characters social class, he has done thiswith Jaggers the lawyer who lives in London, Wemmick his assistant wholives in a quiet, small, eccentric urban house and the Gargerys intheir forge on the marshes. By making Characters settings seemappropriate for their class and personal storyline this makes thenovel seem sanely realistic and possible and this must permit beenvery exciting to the readers of what was then a series and would havebeen one re ason why they might have been eager to read the nextchapter. I think Dickens intentionally made his purpose of settingreal and authentic to achieve the appeal, which would have beengenerated from this.Dickens ability to set mood, tone and atmosphere to compliment hischaracters was crucial in their success, for example, Abel Magwitchand his first appearance in the story as the convict. What better aplace to situate a convict but in a place where it is misty, foggy,cold, damp, dark, dangerous and perilously silent? What makes it evenbetter is that also Dickens puts in a timid boy who has come to visithis dead relatives, only to be ambushed by a convict. The atmospherecreated here really plant life and is effecti... ...reate unique andpowerful portrayals of his settings for example the sky was just arow of long angry lines and dense black lines intermixed. By usingsimiles like transom window patched like a broken head Dickens madesetting imagin fit and so easier to imagine/relate to .The use of setting Great Expectations is of a high standard as Dickenshas been able to create vivid world by means of his involvements of sensesand various writing techniques. Also Dickens was able to make hisnovel realistic as he drew from many of the experiences of his life.Dickens has provided more than a physical background for his narrativeas through is settings he has further enhanced and also deepened hisplot there for bringing his book to life, also he has used mood, toneand atmosphere to complement his characters in effect and his choiceof locations fit in with his story.

Lady Macbeth - From Head Conspirator to Wimp :: essays research papers fc

Lady MacbethFrom Head Conspirator to WimpThe story of Macbeth by Shakespeare is oneness of his most read and most loved plays. It was not unlikely that out of all of his plays that Macbeth would be one of the few successful plays that would be turned into an opera house. Verdi wrote the opera with librettists Francesco Maria Piave and Andrea Maffei. The opera was written around 1846 and premiered on March 14, 1847 at the Teatro dell Pergola in Florence, Italy. A few years later the Verdi revise the opera adding a ballet into it and taking out some things and was performed at the Teatre Lyrique in Paris on April 21, 1865. This opera in comparison to the play begins with the tercet scene of the play. Unlike some of Verdi and other composers other operas the dialogue of Macbeth closely follows Shakespeares dialogue end-to-end the entire opera. It has been said that the words throughout the opera are ore often than not a literal translation of Shakespeares work.All of this informatio n is fine and gives us a general intellect of who wrote the opera and when, but what I want to focus on in this paper is the Prima Donna of the opera by Verdi Lady Macbeth. Although she is an integral part to twain the play also and since the opera is so closely related to the play, I will focus on the opera by Verdi. Through a component analysis, evidence on how Verdi saw his Lady Macbeth, and a discussion of her development through her arias, I will discuss how Lady Macbeth began as a adult female thirsty to become Queen and ends as a woman that was willing to and did take her own life.One of the lines of the play the Lady Macbeth said was very enkindle that gives you the character of Lady Macbeth in one statement and Verdis opera shows this. She says look like the innocent flower, But be the serpent undert. (I. v. 67-68) This is the thesis statement of Lady Macbeths life until the bitter end. Lady Macbeth is Macbeths wife, a deeply ambitious woman who lusts for power and po sition. Early on she is the stronger and more(prenominal) ruthless of the two, as she urges her husband to kill the King, Duncan, and seize the thrown. Lady Macbeth exploits her sexual hold over Macbeth as a means to persuade him to commit execution after murder.

Macbeth was a Bloody Butcher in Shakespeares Macbeth :: essays research papers

The play Macbeth by William Shakespeare gives the audience plenty of opportunities to consider the reasons for Macbeths actions, whither he had saturnine mad, or he was just simply bad. I will look at to the extent to which Macbeth is responsible for his own actions, as well as the contributions of opposite characters through an analysis of the playwrights dramatic techniques. After studying the play in detail I feel that although Macbeth was encouraged at the start he started be after executions on his own and by the end of the play, Macbeths downfall showed him to be a bloody butcher.The play is about a ?golden couple,? Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. Macbeth encounters witches who prophecies Macbeth as a fag. This spurs them both to kill the king and over time power gets to them and Macbeth becomes a cold hearted butcher.The character of Macbeth is very complicated, which makes it difficult to arrive at a explicit decision about how much he is to blame. At the start of the play M acbeth is held in high regard by many people. An example of this is when a serjeant from the army describes his as ? For brave Macbeth - well he deserves that name? He is also thought of as a respected cousin by the king who calls him ? O worthiest cousin? , this shows us that Macbeth was valued by many people as the Thane of Glamis.When Macbeth and Banquo meet the witches, Macbeth seems intrigued. On three occasions Macbeth demands to know more ? Speak, I charge you.? Banquo however does not want to hear what these witches have to say. This shows us that Macbeth is weak and vain, as he likes what the witches have to say. Macbeth is far too easily seduced and only taken in by these witches.When Macbeth objects to Duncan?s murder this is letting us see that Macbeth has a conscience, ? We will proceed no further in this business.? Although he is persuaded afterwards he feels extremely guilty , ?I?ll go no more, I am afraid to think what I have done.? If Macbeth was such a bl oody butcher, then why would he think twice about killing Duncan and afterwards why would he feel guilty ?A event technique Shakespeare uses to make Macbeth seem more human is soliloquy. This lets the audience know what Macbeth is feeling and what he is thinking about.

Effects of Inflation Essay -- Economy Economics Money Essays

Effects of Inflation Inflation is the most commonly used economic term in the popular media. A Nexis search in 1996 found 872,000 news stories over the past twenty years that used the word splashiness. Unemployment ran a distant second. Public concern more or less pomposity generally heats up in step with pompousness itself. Though economists do not always agreeabout when inflation starts to interfere with merchandise signals, the universe tends to express serious alarm once the inflation rate rises above 5 or 6 percent. Public opinion polls lay down minimal concern about rising prices during the early 1960s, as inflation was low. Concern rose with inflation in the late 1960s and early 1970s. When inflation twice surged to double-digit levels in the mid and late 1970s, Americans named it public enemy number one. Since the late 1980s, public anxiety has abated along with inflation itself. Yet even when inflation is low, Americans tend to perceive a morality tale in it s effects. A recent survey by Yale economist Robert Shiller found that many Americans view differences in prices over time as a reflection of fundamental changes in the values of our society, rather than of purely economic forces. Economists think of inflation more patently as a sustained rise in the general level of prices. Their concerns focus on questions such as whether inflation distorts economic decisions. Very spunky inflation adversely impacts economic performance, as evidence from cross-country studies shows. Likewise, moderate levels of inflation can distort investment and consumption decisions. Recent U.S. experience with low, inactive levels of inflation, in the range of 2 to 3 percent, has spurred policy makers to consider the possibility of achieving zero percent inflation. Reducing inflation however has costs in anomic output and unemployment during the adjustment. Thus, an important question is wheth... ... would not allow massive inflation. Americans feeling of pride in national institutions depends in part on low inflation or sound money as a signal of healthy fiscal and monetary institutions. Finally, inflation can discourage deliverance and encourage consumption. It thusly is perceived as an attack on certain moral virtues -- a strong work ethic, deferred gratification -- that support a healthy economy. John Maynard Keynes make his famous attack on the Victorian virtue of saving -- always jam tomorrow and never jam today -- for economic reasons. Consumption in a depression or a recession could strengthen the economy, in his view. But British society took Keyness mockery as an assault on the perfume of Victorian morality. Many Americans likewise feel that inflation assaults the legacy here of the Protestant work ethic that places a moral premium on saving over consumption. Fighting inflation thus is seen by many as a moral as much as an economic duty. Americans want their public officials to fight inflation to increase long-term output and employment but perhaps also to strengthen societys moral foundation.

Effects of Inflation Essay -- Economy Economics Money Essays

Effects of Inflation Inflation is the most commonly used stinting term in the popular media. A Nexis search in 1996 found 872,000 news stories over the past twenty years that used the word pompousness. Unemployment ran a distant second. Public concern about inflation generally heats up in step with inflation itself. Though economists do not always see to itabout when inflation starts to interfere with market signals, the public tends to express serious alarm once the inflation rate rises above 5 or 6 percent. Public opinion polls show minimal concern about rising prices during the early 1960s, as inflation was low. Concern rose with inflation in the late 1960s and early 1970s. When inflation twice surged to double-digit levels in the mid and late 1970s, Ameri do-nothings named it public enemy number one. Since the late 1980s, public anxiety has abated along with inflation itself. Yet even when inflation is low, Americans tend to perceive a chasteity tale in its effects. A recent survey by Yale economist Robert Shiller found that many Americans view differences in prices over time as a reflection of fundamental changes in the values of our society, rather than of purely sparing forces. Economists think of inflation more plainly as a sustained rise in the general level of prices. Their concerns focus on questions such as whether inflation distorts economic decisions. Very high inflation adversely impacts economic performance, as evidence from cross-country studies shows. Likewise, moderate levels of inflation can distort enthronization and consumption decisions. Recent U.S. experience with low, stable levels of inflation, in the range of 2 to 3 percent, has spurred policy makers to consider the possibility of achieving zero percent inflation. Reducing inflation however has costs in lost output and unemployment during the adjustment. Thus, an important question is wheth... ... would not allow massive inflation. Americans feeling of pride in national institutions depends in part on low inflation or sound money as a signal of healthy fiscal and monetary institutions. Finally, inflation can discourage saving and encourage consumption. It thus is perceived as an attack on certain moral virtues -- a strong work ethic, deferred gratification -- that acquit a healthy economy. John Maynard Keynes made his famous attack on the Victorian virtue of saving -- always kettle of fish tomorrow and never jam today -- for economic reasons. Consumption in a depressi on or a recession could strengthen the economy, in his view. But British society took Keyness takeoff as an assault on the core of Victorian morality. Many Americans likewise feel that inflation assaults the legacy here of the Protestant work ethic that places a moral premium on saving over consumption. Fighting inflation thus is seen by many as a moral as untold as an economic duty. Americans want their public officials to fight inflation to increase long-term output and employment but perhaps also to strengthen societys moral foundation.

Recent Changes in Monetary Policy in Pakistan

schoolbookual matterbookual matter bookmarkererer texttoc-mark-start PAKISTAN ECONOMIC POLICY texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start DATED *15TH* DECEMBER 2009 texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start Submitted To texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start Sir Ashraf Janjua texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start Submitted By texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start Nimra Anjum texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start Rakana Payam texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start textbookmark texttoc-mark-start *Sheema H*asanat texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start ACKNOWLEDGEMENT texttoc-mark-end We would like to give our special thanks to our Pakistan Economic insurance teacher, Mr. Ashraf Janjua for giving us this opportunity to work and have an sagacity of the our countrys economy, in like manner to let us interpret our learning in a real situation. We thank him for the assi positioning with out this project. co ntrol panel of Contents MONETARY POLICYpecuniary form _or_ system of political science is the regulation of volume of coin yield, by the cardinal patois in order to achieve coitus outlay stability. If the economy is heating up indeed the Central rely tole floor increase the bank set up or the reserve requirement. Whereas when there is recession, then the bank rate is reduced. Instruments for the Regulation of Money Supply Open grocery store operations. Cash Reserve requirement statutory Liquidity Ratio Credit capital Open market operations It is the buying and selling of disposal securities. If the M.S is gritty then the securities be sold so that people buy it and capital goes to the SBP and if the M. S is low then you buy securities in this way Money supply increases. Cash Reserve infixed It is a requirement in which in all the commercial bank have to keep a partage of cash with the SBP. Currently, it is around 7%. Statutory Liquidity Ratio It is a requiremen t in which each bank has to maintain a certain reserve requirement to strengthen their liquid position. Credit Ceiling It is the fixation of the upper limit quotas argon assigned to different banks. Components of Money textbookmark texttoc-mark-start Mo is the resource bills and comprises of texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start Currency in circulation texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start Banks Reserve with the SBP texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start Other deposits with the SBP texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start Cash in the tills of the Bank texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start M1= Currency in circulation + Demand deposits with scheduled banks + other deposits with SBP. texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start M2=M1 + time deposits with the scheduled banks. Technically, M2 is called Mo terminalary Assets & M1 is called Money Supply. texttoc-mark-end How is Money Created? textbookmark texttoc-mark-start There are three sources of creating gold texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start Net Credit creation by the central Bank (SBP) Credit extended during a period damaging recoveries. texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start 1 and 2 are called interlock Bank commendation. Credit is always on the Asset side of Banks.When this credit is used by issuing cheques end up with bank (either the alike bank/or any other bank). These cheques are deposits, and are on the obligation side of the banks. These deposits/liabilities become money/ pecuniary Assets, and are equal to the credit created by the Banking System. texttoc-mark-end How Much Money can be Created? textbookmark texttoc-mark-start The share of currency in circulation in Mo and, texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start Level of cash in tills and commercial banks reserves with SBP as a % of Mo. texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start The higher(prenominal) the look upon of either of these amounts with r espect to M2, the lower the Money Multiplier. texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start 1/c + r (1-c) texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start C= the ratio b/w CIC + other deposits with SBP and M2 texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start R= Cash assets of Scheduled banks Cash in tills of commercial banks + reserves with SBP. texttoc-mark-end DOES MONETARY POLICY PLAY EFFECTIVE habit IN CONTROLLING INFLATION IN PAKISTAN? Introduction textbookmark texttoc-mark-start Inflation is politically appeally for the government (Haque and texttoc-mark-end Salient Features of the fiscal Policy draw pulp drawframe drawframe Instruments of Monetary Policy textbookmark texttoc-mark-start Cash Reserve Requirement texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start drawframe texttoc-mark-end textbookmark texttoc-mark-start Discount Rate texttoc-mark-end drawframe INFLATION TREND IN PAKISTAN (2004-2009) According to the State Bank of Pakistan, the outcome lump in the yr (2005 ) was 8. per cent which has almost doubled since the abide category (2004) in which the largeness rate was 3. 8 per cent. During this year the non-governmental borrowing change magnitude by 30 per cent. The two main reasons for high inflation during this period were because of high-spirited government borrowings and the set of wheat. According to the State Bank of Pakistan, government estimated that the inflation rate in the next year would range between 7. 7 and 8. 3 per cent. During the year (2006) there was a decrease in the total inflation of the country (general and fodder) from 9. 3 to 7. 9 per cent and 12. 5 per cent to 6. per cent respectively. The government took several major steps to bring the inflation down during this year as well by blottoening the financial form _or_ system of government and augmenting the supply of essential commodities through liberalization of import authorities. As a result the general inflation declined from 9. 3 per cent (2004-05) to 7. 9 per cent (2005-06) & the non-governmental borrowing in the year 2006 became 23 per cent. During 2007 the nucleus inflation reduced from 7. 5 per cent to 5. 9 per cent, due to tight financial indemnity. According to the SBP the food inflation change magnitude from 6. 9 per cent (2006) to 10. per cent (2007) because of supply side constraints in which the prices of some key food staples (including wheat, rice, vegetable, ghee etc,) were increased. Where as comparatively the non-food prices grew at a slower pace since fail year and the general Inflation (CPI) declined from 7. 9 per cent to 7. 8 per cent. The inflationary veer in the food prices during the year (2008) increased to 17. 6 per cent as compared to the last year in which the food inflation was 10. 3 per cent, affecting people living standards of low and fixed income groups. The non-food inflation had the same increasing movement as in the year (2007), which was 6. per cent and during the year (2008) was 7. 9 per cent. Although the core inflation was reduced to 5. 9 per cent but during this year it went back to 8. 4 per cent because of the spherical increase in some commodity, higher utility tariff and by local supply and demand driven prices. Inflation during (2008) indicates that the prices of a hardly a(prenominal) commodities (18) essential food items registered sharp increase particularly during the s half of the financial year (2008). Other significant contributors to (2008) upward inflationary trend included house rent, which is the index that measures the cost of construction in Pakistan, racing to 11. per cent by April (2008). The current financial year commenced with ease in headlines compared to the same month of previous pecuniary year. The consumer price inflation annually was 11. 2 per cent during July (2009) as against 24. 3 per cent in July (2008) and 13. 1 per cent in the previous month. A major increase in the core inflation was witnessed in July (2009) of 17. 6 per cent as compared to July (2008) 8. 4 per cent. The food inflation increased by 6. 1 per cent during this fiscal year. The main reason for this high inflation was due to low export return relative to import, high cover prices and inadequate foreign apital inflow. Conclusively, one can say that inflation adversely affects the overall scotch growth, the financial area victimisation and exploit the vulnerable piteous segments of the population. Inflation also decreases the real income and induces uncertainty. Considering much(prenominal) undesirable impacts of inflation on the economy, theres a consensus among the world leading central banks that the price stability is going to be the prime objective of monetary policy and the central banks are committed to lower the inflation in the economy.Hence the State bank of Pakistan should adopt inflation as their main focus of monetary policy, by targeting inflation explicitly or implicitly as and when requisite. EFFECTIVENESS OF MONET ARY POLICY STATEMENT IN PAKISTAN Economic policies aim to increase the welfare of the general public and monetary policy supports this broad objective by focusing its efforts to promote price stability. plant in this objective is the belief that persistent inflation would compromise the long term economic prospects of the country.The objective of monetary policy in Pakistan, as lay down in the SBP form of 1956, is to achieve the targets of inflation and growth set annually by the government. In pursuit of this mandate, SBP formulates the countrys monetary policy that is consistent with these inform targets. In my remarks today, I plan to provide perspective on First, why central banks focus on price stability? Second, how the monetary policy contagious disease mechanisms work? Third, what are the principal features of Pakistans monetary policy framework?Fourth, selected thoughts on strength of Pakistans monetary policy framework Finally, what measures are requested to improve the effectiveness of the monetary policy framework in Pakistan? These questions have been a subject of much debate lately, as monetary tightening an inevitable policy solution for regaining macroeconomic stability has aroused anxiety but better public understanding of this question will do them to appreciate central banks monetary policy spot. Why Focus on Price Stability? Monetary Policy Transmission MechanismThe monetary transmittal mechanism refers to a form through which monetary policy decisions affect the train of economic activity in the economy and the inflation rate. Understanding the transmission mechanism of monetary policy is crucial for appropriate design and efficient conduct of monetary policy. As monetary policy actions affect policy variables with a considerable throw out and with high degree of variability and uncertainty, it is important to predict the possible impact and extent of monetary policy actions on the real variables. Thus, by its very nature, monetary policy tends to be advance(a).It is also important to know which transmission channels are more than effective in terms of transmitting changes in monetary policy actions to ultimate policy goals. Since various financial sector developments particularly regarding presentment of new financial products, technological changes, institutional strengthening, and expectations about future tense policy, etc can potentially change economic effects of the monetary policy measures, there is a need to regularly update, empirically test and reinterpret monetary policy transmission channels.The impact of monetary policy is perceived to transmit in to the real economic activity through five channels. The commencement exercise channel and most astray studied and understood channel of monetary policy transmission relies on the link between changes in the short-term nominal participation rate (induced by changes in the policy rate) and the long-term real interest rate that ultimatel y affect components of aggregate demand such as consumption and investment in an economy.As such, it is the changes in the long-term real interest range that have its impact on aggregate consumption, business investment and other components of aggregate demand. The second channel, known as the credit channel, involves changes in monetary policy that not only affects the ability of firms to borrow money (by affecting their net worth) but also affects the ability of banks to lend money. The strength of this channel depends on the degree to which the central bank has allowed banks to extend loans and the dependence of borrowers on bank loans.These factors are clearly influenced by the structure of the financial system and its regulation. The third channel of monetary policy transmission focuses on asset prices (other than the interest rate) such as the market value of securities (bonds and equities) and prices of real estate. A policy-induced change in the nominal interest rate affe cts the price of bonds and stocks that may change the market value of firms relative to the replacement cost of capital, affecting investment. Moreover, a change in the prices of securities entails a change in wealth which can affect the consumption of households. Fourth, a policy-induced change in the domestic interest rate also affects the exchange rate that in turn affects the foreign financial flows, net exports and thus aggregate demand. The strength of the exchange rate channel depends on the responsiveness of the exchange rate to monetary shocks, the degree of openness of the economy, sensitivity of foreign private inflows and net exports to exchange rate variations, and the net worth of firms and thus their borrowing capacity if they have taken exposure to foreign currency.Moreover, exchange rate changes lead to changes in the domestic price of trade consumption goods and imported production inputs affecting inflation directly. Since expectations influence the inflation d ynamics, there is a fifth channel that is establish on the economic agents expectations of the future prospects of the economy and likely stance of the monetary policy. According to this expectations channel, most economic variables are determined in a forward-looking manner and are impact by the expected onetary policy actions. Thus, a consistent, credible, and transparent monetary policy can potentially affect the likely path of the economy by only when affecting expectations. Monetary Policy Framework in Pakistan Considering the economic and financial market structure in Pakistan, SBP has for sometime pursued a monetary targeting regime with broad money supply (M2) as a nominal anchor to achieve the objective of controlling inflation without any prejudice to growth.The process of monetary policy homework usually begins at the start of the fiscal year when SBP sets a target of M2 growth in line with governments targets of inflation and growth (usually in the month of May) and an estimation of money demand in the economy. The basic idea is to keep the money supply close to its estimated demand level, as both a significant unnecessary and a shortfall may lead to considerable deviations in actual outcomes of inflation and real GDP growth from their respective targets. central this framework are two strong assumptions first, there is a strong and reliable relationship between the goal variable (inflation or real GDP) and M2 and second, the SBP can control growth in M2. While containing the M2 growth close to its target level is the key consideration in the current monetary framework, the composition of the money supply does matter and at times requires policy actions even if these actions lead to a deviation in monetary growth from its target level.To understand this point, it is incumbent to know the major components of money supply and their relative splendour. Net foreign Assets (NFA) and Net Domestic Assets (NDA) of the banking system are the two major components of money supply. The NFA is the excess of foreign exchange inflows over outflows to the banking system, or in other terms it is a reflection of underlying trends in the countrys external Balance of Payment (BoP) position. It is estimated by the projected values of all major external transactions such trade, workers remittances debt servicing, foreign investment, and debt flows etc.The NDA of the banking system, which primarily consists of credit to the government and the private sector, reflects changes in the fiscal and the real sectors of the economy, If is estimated as a residual of M2 and the NFA. Further break-up of NDA is estimated on the basis of projected credit needs of the government and the private sector. NOW coming to the importance of these components of the money supply, depletion in NFA is generally considered as an unhealthy development.Sharp NFA depletion reflects worsening BOP position and a pressure on exchange rate. In such a case, a higher NDA growth , though helps in expanding M2 to reach ifs target level, may further deteriorate external keys, sharper depreciation of local currency, and higher depletion of countrys foreign exchange reserves. Although since FY07, only the indicative M2 growth target is being announced, SBP also takes into consideration the causative factors for monetary expansion while pursing this target.Considering the changes in monetary aggregates and other economic variables, the changes in monetary policy are signaled through adjustments in the policy discount rate (3-day repo rate). Further, the changes in the policy rate are complemented by appropriate liquidity management mainly through Open Market Operations (OMOs) and if required changes in the Cash Reserve Requirement (CRR) and Statutory Liquid Reserve requirement (SLR) are also made. Significance of various channels that transmit the monetary policy shocks in Pakistan to the real economy has been study by few economists.Ahmad et al. (2005) found that credit channel is the most important conduit for transmitting monetary policy actions to the real economic activity. Evidence confirms transmission through the active asset price channel and exchange rate channel. According to this study, monetary policy shocks impact real output after a lag of 7 to 11 months. Tasneem and Waheed (2006), on the other hand, investigated whether different sectors of the economy respond differently to monetary shocks.The presence of sector wise differences in the monetary transmission mechanism has profound implications for macroeconomic management as the central bank then has to weigh the varying consequences of its actions on different sectors. Investigating the transmission of changes in interest rate to seven sub sectors of the economy, the authors found evidence supporting sector-specific variation in the real effects of monetary policy. They found that the interest rate shock on manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, and finance and insu rance sectors transmit after a lag of 6 to 12 months.On the other hand, monetary policy shocks have negligible impact on agriculture, mining and quarrying, construction and ownership of dwelling sectors. Generally, historical evidence does reflect that Pakistan has been a high inflation and high interest economy given its inherent structural weaknesses. The role and effectiveness of monetary policy appears more manifest in the 2000s when financial sector reforms started bearing fruits in terms of a more market based money and foreign exchange markets.Entering the 21sf century, the loose monetary policy stance in the face of low inflation, low growth and low twin deficits, along with structural measures to open up the economy and alleviate some first round constraints, triggered the economy on a long-term growth trajectory of above 7 pct. Monetary policy stance was however altered as the inflationary pressures started to build up in 2005. At the end of the fiscal year, the economy, which had been showing sustained steady growth since FY01, registered a historically high level of growth (9 per centum), bonnie inflation rose sharply (9. per centum) and the external current account balance turned into deficit (-1. 4 percent of GDP) Coinciding with these developments, the fiscal module started to show signs of pains as the fiscal balance was converted into a deficit and the stock of external debt and liabilities, which had been declining since FY00 after the Paris Club rescheduling, began increasing. These indicators generally capture the high and growing aggregate demand in the economy on account of sustained increase in peoples income.With the emerging domestic and global price pressures, SBP tightened its monetary policy after a prolonged gap of a few years. The efforts to rein-in inflation, however, proved less effective due to a razz in international commodity prices and a rise in domestic food prices later on. The rise in the international commodity p rices, particularly oil, exacerbated the crusade against inflation. The international oil prices (Arabian Light) rose from US$27. 1 at end 2004 to US$50. 9 at end 2006, whereas international food prices rose by 24, 24 and 21 percent during 2004, 2005 and 2006 respectively.Realizing the complications of monetary management and adverse global and domestic economic developments, the implementation of SBP monetary policy during FY06 varied significantly from the anterior fiscal years. In addition to the rise in the policy rate, the central bank focused on the short-end of the yield curve, draining excess liquidity from the interbank money market and pushing up short-tenor rates. Consequently, not only did the overnight rates remain close to the discount rate through most of the year, the volatility in these rates also declined.These tight monetary conditions along with the Governments administrative measures to control food inflation helped in scaling down average inflation from 9. 3 percent in FY05 to 7. 9 percent in FY06, within the 8. 0 percent annual target. This was certainly an encouraging development, particularly as if was achieved without affecting economic growth as the real GDP growth remained strong at 6. 6 percent in FY06. Further Strengthening of Tight Monetary Policy For FY07, the government set an inflation target of 6. 5 percent.To achieve this, a further moderation in aggregate demand during FY07 was required as the core inflation witnessed a relatively smaller decline in FY06, indicating that demand-side inflationary pressures were strong. In this perspective, SBP further tightened its monetary policy in July 2006 raising the CRR and SLR for the scheduled banks and its policy rate by 50 basis points (bps) to 9. 5 percent. Moreover, proactive liquidity management helped in transmitting the monetary tightening signals to key interest rates in the economy.For instance, the Karachi Inter Bank Offer Rate (KIBOR) of 6 months tenor increased from 9. 6 percent in June 2006 to 10. 02 percent at end-June 2007 and the banks weighted average lending and deposits rates (on outstanding amount) increased by 0. 93 percentage points and 1. 1 percentage points, respectively, during FY07. In retrospect, it appears evident that monetary tightening in FY07 did not put any adverse impact on economic growth, as not only was the real GDP growth target of 7. 0 percent for FY07 was met, the growth was quite broad based.At the same time, the impact of the monetary tightening was most evident in the continued deceleration in core inflation during FY07. One measure of core inflation, the non-food non-energy CPI, continued its downtrend from YoY high of 7. 8 percent in October 2005, to 6. 3 percent at end-FY06, and to 5. 1 percent by the end of FY07. However, much of the gains from the tight monetary policy on overall CPI inflation were offset by the unexpected rise in food inflation. On the downside, however, broad money supply (M2) grew by 19. 3 pe rcent during FY07, exceeding the annual target by 5. percentage points. Slippages in money supply growth largely stemmed from an expansion in NFA due to the higher than expected foreign exchange inflows. Equally stressful was the impact of Government borrowings from the central bank during the course of the year. The pressure from the fiscal account was due to mismatch in its external budgetary inflows and expenditures. With the privatization inflows and the receipts from a sovereign debt offering at end-FY07, the Government managed to end the year with retirement of central bank borrowings, on the margin.By end-FYO7, SBP holdings of government papers were still around Rs 452 one thousand million, despite a net retirement of Rs 56. 0 billion during the year. Another major aberration in FY07 emanated from the high level of SBP refinancing extended, for both working capital and long-term investment, to exporters. Aside from monetary management complexities, these schemes have been di storting the incentive structure in the economy. FY08 and Beginning of FY09 More Challenging FY08 was an exceptionally difficult year.The domestic macroeconomic and political vulnerabilities coupled with a very challenging global environment caused slippages in macroeconomic targets by a wide margin. After a relatively long period of macroeconomic stability and prosperity, the global economy faced multifarious challenges (i) hit by the sub prime mortgage crisis in U. S in 2007, the international financial markets had been in turmoil, the impact of which was felt across markets and continents (ii) rising global commodity prices, with crude oil and food staples prices skyrocketing and (iii) a gradual slide in the U.S dollar against major currencies. Combination of these events induced a degree of recessionary tendencies and inflationary pressures across certain and developing countries. Policy- choosers were gripped with the dual challenge of slowdown in growth and unprecedented risi ng inflationary pressures. Central bankers faced a demanding task of weighing the trade-off between growth and price stability. With the exception of few developed countries, most central banks showed a strong bias towards addressing the risk of inflation and responded with tightening of monetary policies.On the domestic front, the external current account deficit and fiscal deficit widened considerably to unsustainable level (8. 4 and 7. 4 percent of GDP). The subsidy payments worth Rs 407 billion by Government, which account for almost half of the fiscal deficit, shielded domestic consumers from high international POL and commodity prices and distorted the natural demand adjustment mechanism. While the government passed on price increase to consumers, the rising international oil and other importable prices continued to take a toll on the economy.Rising demand has cost the country in a heartfelt way in terms of foreign exchange spent on importing large volumes of these commoditie s. Rising fiscal deficit and lower than required financing flows resulted in exceptional recourse of the Government to the highly inflationary central bank borrowing for financing deficit. At the same time the surge in imports persisted. As a result, inflation accelerated and its expectations strengthened due to pass through of international oil prices to the domestic market, increases in the electricity tariff and the general sales tax, and rising exchange rate depreciation.These developments resulted in a further rise in headline as well as core inflation (20 percent weighted trimmed measure) to 25 percent and 21. 7 percent respectively in October 2008. Considering the size of macroeconomic imbalances and the emerging inflationary pressures, SBP remained committed to achieve price stability over the medium term and thus had to launch steeper monetary tightening to tame the demand pressures and restore macroeconomic stability in FY09. SBP thus increased the policy rate from 13. 5 to 15%.What Needs to be Done to Improve the Effectiveness of Monetary Policy? Apart from victorious policy measures to address the emerging challenges, SBP also introduced structural changes in the process of monetary policy formulation and conduct to make the monetary policy formulation and implementation more transparent, efficient, and effective. Specifically, during the last couple of years, SBP focused on Institutionalizing the process of policy formulation and conduct Stepping up movement towards a more market based credit allocation mechanism Developing its analytical and operational capacity Improving its capabilities to assess future developments to act proactively and Improving upon the communication of policy stance to the general public. However, the following areas need attention and are keys or effective monetary management. 1. Effectiveness of monetary and fiscal co-ordination would be helpful. Section 9A and 9B of the SBP defend (amended in 1994) articulates th e institutional mechanism for economic policy making and co-ordination and defines the ground rules for both the process and the policy making.However, the track record of the Monetary and Fiscal Policies Co-ordination posting (MFPCB), established in February 1994 that requires quarterly meetings of the SBP and the government, has been less than satisfactory. Furthermore, the sequencing of economy-wide projections is done in isolation of the budget and monetary policy making process, and the budget making process has not respected the monetary compulsions. With rising spending and stagnating revenues, the budget assumes at the start of the year certain recourse to the central bank rather than treat it as mere ways and means advances. . For effective analysis of developments and policy making, timely and quality information is extremely important. However, due to weaknesses in the data collection and reportage mechanism of the various agencies of the country, information is not avai lable with desired frequency and timeliness. Also there are concerns over the quality of data. Unlike many developed and developing countries, data on quarterly GDP, employment and wages, etc is not available in case of Pakistan.Moreover, the data on key macroeconomic variables (such as government expenditure and revenue, output of large-scale manufacturing, crop estimates, etc) is usually available with substantial lags. This constrains an in-depth analysis of the current economic situation and evolving trends, and hinders the ability of the SBP to develop a forward-looking policy stance. 3. Unlike many countries, both developed and developing, there is no prescribed limit on government borrowing from SBP defined in the SBP Act or the Fiscal Responsibility and Debt Limitation (FRDL) Act 2005.Besides being highly inflationary, government borrowing from SBP also complicates liquidity management. Borrowing from the central bank injects liquidity in the system through increased currenc y in circulation and deposits of the government with the banks. In both cases, the impact of tight monetary stance is cut as this automatic creation of money increases money supply without any prior notice. Moreover, access to potentially unlimited borrowings from the SBP provides little incentives to the government to put the fiscal accounts in order.Therefore, the foremost task to improve the effectiveness of monetary policy is to prohibit the practice of government borrowings from the SBP. In this regard, appropriate provisions are required to cease or limit government recourse to central bank financing through amendments in the SBP Act and the FRDL Act 2005. 4. Another issue is to make a clear distinction between exchange rate management and monetary management. Currently, there is a general perception that the State Bank is dance to keep the exchange rate at some predefined level and any movement away from this level is then considered as an inefficiency of the SBP.There is a need to understand that for an open economy, it is impossible to pursue an independent monetary and exchange rate policy as well as allowing capital to move freely across the border. Since the SBP endeavors to achieve price stability through achieving monetary targets by changes in the policy rate, it is not possible to maintain exchange rates at some level with free capital mobility. This can only be achieved by putting complete restrictions on capital movements, which is not possible.SBPs responsibility is to underwrite an environment where foreign exchange flows are driven by economic fundamental and are not misguided by rent seeking speculation. 5. Finally, based on experience particularly gained during the last two months is to differentiate between liquidity management and monetary policy stance. Recently, when the banking system experienced extraordinary stress due to shallow liquidity in the system, rumor mongering heightened the general public anxiety over few banks susta inability. Consequently, the SBP had to intervene in the market by injecting full liquidity through various measures.In some quarters, these changes were deemed as a change in the banks tight monetary policy stance. However, this was not the case and the bank had to clearly and repeatedly communicate that the existing stance is being continued. Later on, the bank further tightened its monetary policy. It must be understood that quite often, liquidity management can drive the market interest rates away from the direction desired under the monetary policy stance. However, this has to be temporary and the interest rates are bound to move in the policy stance direction.To resolve this issue, the SBP is studying various options, including the introduction of a Standing Deposit celerity to keep the interbank rate within a corridor. In conclusion, it is imperative that above steps be taken urgently. Over the period, however, this needs to be complemented with much deeper structural refor ms to synchronize and reform the medium term planning for the budget and monetary policy formulation process Several studies and technical assistance have provided bulky guidance in this area, but the lack of capacities and short term compulsions have often withheld such reforms.What is important is to recognize that a medium term development strategy, independently worked out, would help minimize one agency interest which has often been a source of co-ordination difficulties. It would also help the budget making process more rule based than the incrementally driven process to satisfy conflicting demands. THE RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN MONETARY POLICY (2007-2009) The SBP has kept its tight monetary policy stance in the period July 01, 2008-April 20, 2009. The policy rate was adjusted upward in November 2008 to shave-off some aggregate demand from the economy and kept constant in January 2009.However, noticing visible signs of demand compression enabled the SBP to reduce one C basis po ints on April 20, 2009. During July 01, 2008-April 18, 2009, money supply (M2) expanded by 1. 6 percent against the target of expansion of 8. 0 percent for the year and last year expansion of 8. 1 percent in the comparable period of last year. The reserve money witnessed concretion of 2. 2 percent in this period as against expansion of 10. 3 percent in the comparable period of last year. Net domestic assets (NDA) have increased by Rs. 307 billion as compared to increase of Rs. 627. 5billion in last year.However, it is showing an increase of 7. 6 percent in stock during this period, whereas, last year the growth in stock was 20. 4 percent in the comparable period. Net foreign assets (NFA) have recorded a contraction of Rs. 263. 9 billion against the contraction of Rs. 356. 4 billion in the comparable of last year See Table-6. drawframe Government borrowing for budgetary support has recorded an increase of Rs. 240. 5 billion as compared to Rs. 336. 0 billion in the comparable period of the last year. The government has over performed against freezing the net borrowing from SBP at Rs. 57 billion in 2008-09 and the SBP financing has shown a net increase of Rs. 103. 3 billion and financing from scheduled banks witnessed a net increase of Rs. 137. 2 billion during July 01, 2008-April 18, 2009. Credit to private sector witnessed a net increase of Rs. 55. 4 billion during July 01, 2008-April 18, 2009 as compared to Rs. 359. 7 billion in the comparable period of last year. The stocks still went up by 9. 1 percent. SBP undertook aggressive monetary tightening during the period, further increasing the policy rate by 300 bps in two rounds.On a cumulative basis, this means a 550 bps increase during the last 18 months up to March 2009. However, the policy rate was rock-bottom by 100 bps on April 20, 2009. These policy measures were in chemical reaction to carryover of macroeconomic stresses of the preceding year and increase in real aggregate demand. Monetary tightening has worked in the right direction. Weighted average lending rate have witnessed s sluttish decline from 15. 5 percent in October 2008 to 14. 8 percent in February 2009. Weighted average deposit rate on the other hand has increased from 6. 2 percent in October 2008 to 7. percent in February 2009 which implies constraining of the spread amidst intensive deposit mobilization efforts on the part of the banks. The weighted average yields on 6 months T-bill has declined by almost 250 basis points to 11. 5 percent in March 2009 as against 14 percent in November and December 2008 See Fig-2. drawframe Recent Discount Rate in Pakistan (2007-2009) During 2007-08, the SBP continued with tight monetary policy stance, thrice raising the discount rate and increased the Cash Reserve requirement (CRR) and Statutory Liquidity Requirement (SLR).In the light of continued inflationary buildup and increasing pressures in the foreign exchange market, the SBP announced a package of monetary measures on Ma y 21, 2008 that included(i) an increase of cl bps in discount rate to 12 percent (ii) an increase of 100 bps in CRR and SLR to 9 percent and 19 percent, respectively for banking institutions (iii) introduction of a margin requirement for the opening of letter of credit for imports (excluding food and oil) of 35percent, and (iv) establishment of a floor of 5percent on the rate of return on salary and loss sharing and saving accounts.The year 2008-09 is characterized by a reduction in CRR by 2 percent in two equal phases to help the liquidity issues of the banking system. Later on, the SBP announced a 200 bps hike in discount rate to 15 per cent on November 12, 2008 in response to persistent hike in core inflation and current account deficit in a last ditch effort to demand compression. interest a slight reversal in the mounting inflationary and demand pressures, the SBP announced a downward adjustment of policy rate by 100 bps on April 20, 2009.SBPs tight monetary policy and ration alization of fiscal subsidies and expenditure controls are the key factors that contributed a reasonable progress towards macroeconomic stability. The private consumption grew by 5. 2 percent in real term during 2008-09 which implies that notwithstanding substantial reduction in the fiscal and current account deficits, demand pressures are still confronting monetary management. drawframe

“Faerie Queen Book II” & “In Cold Blood’s” Perception of Morality Essay

Morality has come to be a term to serve a relative purpose. Relative in the sense that the appreciation of the term morality has more often than not depended on the circumstances and what people may view or perceive to be moral. The two literary works arsedid of this paper are Faerie big businessman restrain II by Edmund Spenser and In Cold Blood by Truman Capote.It is worth noting that these two literary works are of different nature and subject. Still like all literary works and like all things that embroil human actions and involve human events.The end of morality though not emphatically stressed is being presented. The object of morality although not the main subject in any literary work can be examined. Through the series of acts that transpire throughout the point and the elbow room in which the author has inflexible to present them. The two literary works subject of this paper are independent of each other. One is contemporary while the other is a myth from older tim es. A lot of differences can be gleaned upon careful examination of these two literary works.The most important difference however that this paper go out seek to address is their difference in their display of morality and the kind of morality presented. In The Faerie pouf Book II the object and monstrance of morality deals more with morality in the form of a pursuance. It presents morality involved in aces quest he takes in spiritedness. peculiarly on how unrivaled can rise above the occasion or on how one is able to succeed. The object of morality in the Faerie Queen Book II is more evident in the conclusion making of its protagonists.The literary work In Cold Blood has a different object and method of institution of morality. In this literary work the main object of morality is the sanctity and value of life and the consequences of taking life away from someone. To be more specific it deals with morality in a setting where a crime of finish has been committed.This pap er bequeath proceed to compare the object and presentation of morality for both literary works. Through such comparison this paper will be able to discuss the representation of morality in both literary works. Representation of Morality will invariably be an integral part of any literary work (Thesis Statement).Faerie Queen Book IIThis literary masterpiece focuses on Book II of a series of VI view ass written by Edmund Spenser. Book II deals mostly on the quests and adventures of one of the main protagonists Guyon and the side stories of different characters like Arthur. This paper will not proceed to summarize the said book. Instead the parts where morality has been represented will be highlighted. This is in keeping with the very purpose of this paper. there are several verses in which the presentation of morality can be gleaned yet if that careless hevens, (quoth she) despise The doome of just revenge, and take delight To see sad pageaunts of mens miseries, As bownd by them to live in lives despight Yet can they not warne death from damnable right. Come, then come soone come sweetest death, to me, And take away this commodious lent loathed light Sharpe be thy wounds, but sweete the medicines be, That long captivated soules from weary thraldome free. (Page 267, The Faerie Queene Book II, Edmund Spenser)The verse as cited above depicts the kind of representation of morality the Faerie Queen Book II shows us. As earlier contended the morality in this book is presented through the decisions made by the characters in such book.Here we can clearly see the casual surrender of ones fate. A decision to surrender ones fate represents the kind of morality this book wants to come across. Morality is represented through this decision making in which one surrenders to death. This representation of morality may not be acceptable to us since surrendering to death has never been moral. Still, the book tries to justify the same through showing us the difficult circum stances such character is in.The concept of virtue in this book is surrendered to the heavens. Morality in this book was not clearly defined or presented. It does not provide whether one act prove to be moral or not. It allows the decision of morality be adjudged by its readers. Throughout the book which follows the quest of Guyon and other characters like Arthur. The representation of morality is made through their acts, decisions and emotions on the events that transpire in their journey. Morality here is presented through stimulating the audience or readers leaving them to decide whether one act was moral or not.In Cold BloodIn Cold Blood is a story of murder committed by Dick and Perry and their eventual attempt to escape justice through leaving. The morality presented in this literary work is one of more solemn tone. The morality, as presented in this book is the sanctity of human life and the consequences one must take when they decide to take away life or in more common term s commit murder. Murder for a long time is a concept that can easily be considered as an scandalous act and it is indeed an immoral act. Unlike Faerie Queen Book II In cold blood is more factual in tone.The manner of its presentation is through a series of events that transpired. It is the more common contemporary type of story telling. The presentation of morality has been embedded in the way the story was told. Unlike the Faerie Queen Book II what is moral and what is not moral is more clearly depicted in this story.If in the Faerie Queen Book II morality was vague and one left to be adjudged by the readers. The contrary applies to the literary work In Cold Blood. The last mentioned book specifically provides that a murder was committed and that it was immoral, it was wrong and it was a crime punishable by law. Clear indications were made as to the presentation of morality. This can be clearly seen through the statements made in the bookFeeling wouldnt run half so high if this h ad happened to anyone except the Clutters. Anyone less admired. Prosperous. Secure. But that family represented everything people hereabouts really value and respect, and that such a thing could happen to them well, its like being told there is no God. It makes life seem pointless. I dont think people are so much(prenominal) frightened as they are deeply depressed. (In Cold Blood, Truman Capote)As clearly gleaned from the words of the book cited above a more definite and specific feeling of morality is expressed in this book. The representation of morality is much more obvious and emphasized that that of the Faerie Queen Book II. The morality in taking away life was not only for the murder. There was also an instance where the morality of taking the life of the murderers was mentionedDewey had watched them die, for he had been among the twenty-odd witnesses invited to the ceremony. He had never attended an execution, and when on the midnight past he entered the cold warehouse, the scenery had affect him he had anticipated a setting of suitable high-handedness, not this bleakly lighted cavern cluttered with lumber and other debris. But the gallows itself, with its two lookout man nooses attached to a crossbeam, was imposing enough and so, in an unexpected style, was the hangman, who cast a long shadow from his perch on the platform at the exonerate of the wooden instruments thirteen steps. (In Cold Blood, Truman Capote)Though the morality of taking the lives of the murderers was evident not even a place of suitable dignity was presented. Clearly defining what is moral and what is not.ConclusionIn conclusion, in any literary work a sense of representation of morality is and will always be deemed written. The representation of morality may differ through it object and representation. Still as long as human acts are involved, as long as we deal with the event of one persons life, morality will always be an object of any literary work. To date presentation of morality is relative for every literary work. Still, though seemingly impossible. A day may come when the relativity of the presentation of morality will be erased and a basic standard of morality just for everyone can be shared by all.Works CitedSpensers Faerie Queene Book II, Edited by Thomas J, Wise, Pictured by Walter CraneIn Cold Blood, Truman Capote

Corruption of Power Essay

The rotting of occasion, or the power of decadency is a common theme found in texts of many antithetic types of media and in many societies and cultures around the world.In the texts I have selected, I have come to the conclusion that, all reputations in the pursuit of power atomic number 18 bribe.In the texts I have selected, which include, The Crucible, The Godfather, Animal Farm and Akira, the portrayal of corruption is closely linked to that of power.How is corruption of power shown/represented in the texts?Lord Acton, a key influence on this essay, once said, All too frequently men with the mentality of gangsters get control.This quote could hold no much(prenominal) relevancy to any other text than that of The Godfather. In The Godfather the story revolves around that of Michael Cole star, and his rise to power as the lintel of a the family, a gang that deals in discordant underground activities.Michaels character undergoes a dramatic development as the film goes on. At the beginning of the film we can set that Michael appears to be a lesson and upright character. He is a war hero, and is not involved in any appearance with the family business. However as the film progresses, and Michael stats gaining power in the family, he becomes more than amoral, firstly killing Sollozzo, a gangster who attempted to take Michaels father, Vito Corleones, life. At this sudden and dramatic change in characterMichael justifies his revenge saying, Its not personal, Sonny. Its strictly business. The term, just business is mappingd through egress the film to justify corrupt behaviour, immediately associating the character as mercenary(a) and amoral. The film hence suggests that Michael, peradventure like all of us, always had the potential to be materialistic, (and wherefore amoral,)but did not previously hold a position that enabled him to commit any acts or corruption or evil.This corruption is also evident Animal Farm, where the pigs, and more specifical ly pile, strive for power as a means to commit acts of corruption.Here, however, the initial motivating is the inverse, and yet the same of what we confabulate in the Godfather. Where Michael uses corruption to achieve power, cat sleep uses power as a means to commit selfish act of corruption. Napoleon and Snowball, two authoritative pigs assume leadership over the farm. However corruption soon becomes evident as Napoleon exiles Snowball, through a long frame-up plan, in order to gain full control of the farm. Just the fact that Napoleon assumed leadership and had an ag finish upa proves that he was corrupt before he gained power. Napoleon being the only leader almost immediately becomes dictator and inevitably sets up a bureaucracy, which goes against the most important rule of Animalism, All animals ar equal. So as Napoleon assumes full power, his corruption materialises, as he has no opposition to challenge him.In The Crucible too we can empathise that when absolute power i s attained absolute corruption is gained. Powerful characters are always evil. Danforth and Abigail, the two best examples are both willing to kill in order to get what they want. For Abigail, he object of desire is watch, and she is willing to kill Elizabeth. While Danforth will do every intimacy he can to protect the power he holds, allowing innocent people to be hung when he knows that the girls are lying. The characters Hale and Proctor both give up their position of power to do the right thing. Proctor for example repents and admits to adultery in order to prove to the court the grudge Abigail holds against Elizabeth. So within the play corruption is therefore represented as power itself those who hold power, to put it bluntly are corrupt.In Akira however, corruption exists in all if not most characters. A clear sign of corruption in the movie is through the use of violence. Characters such as Kaneda who from the beginning use violence are seen as corrupt, and as we see Tetsuo s character develop he becomes more and more violent, firstly beating people, then eventually killing them. Gentle or passive characters on the other hand are a great deal more pure and, represent the good guy. We can see that as Kaneda attempts to kill Tetsuo he achieves nothing but to further enrage him and cause more destruction, but as Kaneda becomes sympathetic towards Tetsuo eventually trying to save him, he is rewarded by surviving the explosion that destroys Tokyo.What was the context in which the text was created. How does it affect the way corruption of power is portrayed?Context plays an important role in all texts, specifically in those that are allegorical, and represent reality at the while in which they were made. For example the book, Animal Farm and the play, The Crucible both are metaphorical and allegorical and both are critical reviews on an event or person at the time.In Animal Farm the protagonists are metaphorical, or rather allegorical representations of k ey political figures at the time. For example the character of Napoleon is Stalin in reality, while the character of Snowball is Trotsky. Both were communist revolutionaries, but both had different contradicting views on Marxist theory. The text therefore portrays Napoleon in exactly the same way as Stalin, making the character commit acts that were parallel to that of Stalins. Such as the exile of Snowball/ Trotsky, and the execution of many venture soviet/animal enemies.In The Crucible too we can see a direct representation of corruption, as the text is metaphorical of the McCarthy trials in the 1950s. The character of Danforth, while not directly parallel like Stalin/Napoleon, has many similarities to the U.S senator McCarthy. Much like in the McCarthy trials characters in the crucible use hysteria and jurisdiction to manoeuvre rivals with crimes they did not commit. McCarthy used charges of communism against many of his opponents inside and outside of office, in the same way t hat characters such as Abigail used charges of witchcraft against her rival Elizabeth. once again time period plays an important factor in the portrayal of corruption. We can see that in The Godfather 1972, corruption is portrayed as one and the same thing as materialism. Vito Corleone, who is the original head of the family, may be a mob boss, but he is viewed as a moral upright character. This is because of the humanity and brain of justice that he carries with him. The opening scene of the film has the character Bonasera asking Vito to kill two boys who abused his young woman, I ask you for justice, but Vito replies, That is not justice.Your daughter is alive. Unlike almostall the other mobsters in the film, Vito never uses the phrase just business, this emphasises yet again the humanity of his character, and contrasts with Michael and the other gangsters materialistic values. For example when one of the Corleone gangsters kill a mole within the family, he comments soon after s aying, Leave the gun. Take the cannoli. This quote shows how irrelevant human life is compared to material wealth, as the killer pays no notice, let alone respect to the dead. The film is therefore a negative review on American society, and its capitalistic or materialistic values at the time.Akira is also an important text in relation to a culture or society. It is different from the other texts I have canvass because being made in Japan, it is not western. This is an important fact, as we might not notice but western films are very biblical and often justify the use of violence for the good guys to defeat the bad guys. In western film evil is often much more of an external forces than what we find in Japanese film. This is related to the fact that Buddhism being a major religion in Japan, influences a lot of media. Much like in The Godfather materialism is seen as evil, but the main indicator for corrupt characters in Akira is violence. All characters who commit violence are imm ediately considered corrupt, however these characters can be forgiven very easily by simply changing their ways and becoming more moral.What comparisons can we make between the portrayals of John Dalberg-Actons stand burden on corruption of power in the texts? What differences are there?In all the texts, those who strive for power are evil. Power is seen as a means to carry out the selfish and generally immoral goals of a character, and that is why it is valued.In The Crucible, Danforth commits evil deeds in order to stay in power. He and the other ministers jazz that the girls are lying, but if they admit they were wrong, their power will be undermined. In one particular scene Hale tries to convince Danforth to postpone if not fell the hangings, as the girls are strongly suspected of lying, but Danforth replies saying, Twelve are already executed the names these seven are given out,and the village expects to see them die this morning. Postponement now speaks a floundering on my p art reprive or pardon must cast doubt upon the guilt of them that died until now. At the risk of losing trust Danforth is willing to sacrifice numerous lives in order to keep his position of power, he is therefore seen as extremely selfish and corrupt character. Abigail we can see is clearly corrupt even before she holds any power. After the girls are caught dancing in the forest, Abigail threatens them saying, We danced.That is all, and mark this, if anyone breathe a word or the borderline of a word about the other things, I will come to you in the black of some terrible night, and I will bring with me a pointy reckoning that will shudder youThe Crucible does however fail to show any moral or even ethical characters develop into dishonest corrupt ones. Nevertheless we do see characters such as Hale and Proctor throw away their power and reputation, for the right thing. This nevertheless emphasises my point, as ultimately in the crucible no moral figures can have any authority. Ha le starts the play being amoral, or rather nave, but by the end is willing to throw away his reputation in order to save those he has damned.He confesses to witchcraft in an attempt to convince the judged to do the same, therefore saving their lives, he says, I come to do the devils work. I come to counsel Christians they should belie themselves . . . can you not see the blood on my headIn Animal Farm, one clear difference we can see from the other studied texts, is that Napoleon, the head pig has an agenda from early on. This serves to emphasise my point that characters that seek power are inherently corrupt. However Animal Farm may go as far to say that, Napoleon underwent little to no transformation in character at all. He took the potion of leadership so that he could set his plans in motion.In The Godfather it is less strongly suggested as it is in the other texts that the corrupted character was in fact corrupt to begin with. However if we re-examine the portrayal of corruptio n, which in this case is materialism, we can still use this text to support my theory. We as the audience first see that Michael is corrupt when his materialistic views are made noticed. Before he even gains any power, he offers to kill Sollozzo an enemy to the family, for business, Michael is then instantly seen as an amoral character, as he much like many of the other gangsters are verymaterialistic. Michael later becomes more and more materialistic, and therefore becomes more corrupt. As we can see through the numerous killings he orders, including the death of his brother in law, and the casino owner Moe Greene who previously refused to sell Michael his casino.In the texts we can see that any character that seeks power, does so as it allows them to commit acts of corruption. In a text like the Crucible, it has even kaput(p) as far to say that those in power must be corrupt, and that moral leaders cannot exist if they have power. Those who are moral and hold power, release thei r power out of selflessness, while those who retain or seek out power do it for selfish means.Referenced materialhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Godfatherhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cruciblehttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Farmhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akira_(film)Themeshttp//www.imdb.com/title/tt0068646/quoteshttp//www.imdb.com/title/tt0094625/quoteshttp//books.google.co.nz/books?id=Ik73H7d4x8gC&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=%22I+-+I+have+no+witness+and+cannot+prove+it,+except+my+word+be+taken.+But+I+know+the+children%27s+sickness+had+naught+to+do+with+witchcraft.%22& reference=bl&ots=38RBlzudbW&sig=sNt3tl0PGtcGTt2oHGQtm8hBcGU&hl=en&ei=UDMfSuWVJ53osgOM9JiQCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2PPP1,M1http//www.george-orwell.org/Animal_Farm/index.htmlhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_McCarthyhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_StalinAnimal Farm, George OrwellThe Crucible, Arthur MillerThe Godfather, Francis Ford CoppolaAkira, Katsuhiro Otomohttp //www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/l/lord_acton.htmlhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalberg-Acton,_1st_Baron_Acton

Superflat

Bijutsu Fine art Kindai Bijutsu Modern art Manga Manga atomic number 18 idiotics and gull cartoons, in japanese and conformist to the style developed in lacquer in the late 20th degree centigrade. Otaku Known as a mass media product corresponding japanese Culture, anime, has gained an increasing picture and acceptance overseas during the 1990s.The term otaku, which was coined in 1982 and came into familiar usage by 1989, is usually translated as geek or aficionado, and refers to a group of people who income tax return refuge in a world of fantasy, drinking in the images supplied by the youthful media usually from telecasting, magazines and comic books, but also computer images or television system games (Baral 1999 22). The etymology of otaku was drawn upon the work of Volker Grassmuck in his seminal otaku-studies article Im alone, but non lonely Nipponese Otaku-Kids colonize the Realm of Information and Media, A Tale of energize and Crime from a fara room Place. Supe rflat art The world of the future might be like Japan is today Superflat. Society, customs, art, polish all are extremely two-dimensional. It is recessicularly apparent in the arts that this sensibility has been flowing steadily beneath the pop out of Japanese history Superflat is an original ideal that links the outgoing with the present and the future. (Murakami, 2000 9)Superflat is a concept and theory of art created by the contemporary Japanese artist, Takashi Murakami. The Superflat (2000) exhibition in Tokyo marked the launch of this new esthetic which took contemporary Japanese art and identity into a globoseised milieu of precise thought. The exhibition, which was curated by Murakami and subsequently travelled to the unify States, featured the work of a chain of established and emerging artists drawn from art and commercial genres in Japan. As an essential wear out of Murakamis political strategy, Superflat was al ways designed to travel globally.An elaborate, multilingual catalogue Super Flat (Murakami, 2000), which included Murakamis manifesto, A Theory of Super Flat Japanese guile, accompanied the exhibition. In this manifesto Murakami affirmed that the Superflat exhibitions were created to pass on a ethnic- historical context for the new form of art that he was proposing, and which was specifically exported for western sandwich references. Superflat art, as a cultural text, is intricately enmeshed in the tensions amidst the location and representation of local/global cultural identities.These identities, charm proffering bulwark through the assertion of difference, are also formed as part of the processes of globalisation rather than in strict op fructify to it (Robertson, 1995). In producing Superflat for Hesperian art markets and Japanese art worlds, Murakami addresses existing discursive knowledge of Japanese art, history and everyday culture, while at the same time presenting a new variant of those identities. In thi s way, Superflat is part of the politics of commodification and expression of cultural difference generated in global enjoyment.Murakamis Superflat concept identifies a new artistic emerging from the creative expressions produced in Japanese contemporary art, anime (Japanese animation), manga (graphic novels), video games, fashion and graphic design. Superflat is presented as a argufy to the institutions and practices of bijutsu (fine art), which Murakami argues are an incomplete import of Western concepts. Murakami is specifically referring to the modern institutions of kindai bijutsu (modern art) that were adopted during the Meiji period (18681912) as part of Japans process of modernization and Westernization.To Murakami, the intention and originality of post-1945 forms of commercial culture represent a continuation of the innovations of the Edo (16001867) visual culture. Murakami snarledally argues that Edo culture represents a more original cultural tradition, because it wa s a time of restricted foreign contact. At the same time, Murakami self-consciously uses Western art markets and the popular appeal of Japanese consumer culture to propose the Superflat alternative. That is, Murakami utilizes the Western popular imaginings of Japanese culture as a hyper-consumeristic, postmodern layhouse (Morley & Robins, 1995 147173) in constructing Superflat. SUPERFLATNESS GLOBALIZING STRATEGIES IN ART MARKET As the interaction between social groups has plump more and more globalized, the meaning-making and expressivities associated with art have also become progressively more engaged through discipline and transnational gradients (Papastergiadis & Artspace, 2003). In particular, the formation of identity and expressive modes in a national genealogy becomes problematic within a globalizing cultural sphere.Many artists struggle to find the binary position of balancing East and West cultures, while Takashi Murakami, contemporary Japanese artist, with his theory of Superflat art, worked out his way in this dilemma. He provides a effective case study of the strategies artists provoke employ to negotiate cultural and artistic identities in between this binary. This paper investigates the Superflat concept and analyses Murakamis art working to expose the tensions and dialogues regarding cultural identity and commodification that are produced by their global circulation.The stolon section maps Murakamis strategy in constructing Superflat and contextualizes this in relation to discourses of Japanese national-cultural identity. The second section applies this theorization by analyzing the visual codes of Murakamis figure sculpt My Lonesome Cowboy. This figure sculpt is part of a series in which Murakami combined the aesthetic codes and markers of otaku culture, particularly the prominence of anime and manga characters, with various art historical references.This piece tests the multifarious local/global codes and cultures that Superflat ar t engages. Global Flows and the Soy Sauce Strategy Globalization creates spaces in which mobile elements interact with both incontrovertible and negative effects. Three key issues emerge in contemporary theorizations of globalization that are relevant to this discussion firstly, the problem of how to retain the concept of local/national cultural particularity and to concurrently recognize the onvergences and overlaps between cultures in a global context (Robertson, 1995) secondly, how to recognize the value in cultural difference as a tool of critical (oppositional) agency (Fisher, 2003) and acknowledge that difference sight also become a commodity in the global market mark (Hall, 1991) and thirdly, to acknowledge the dominance of Western cultural, political and economic imperatives in globalization (Hardt & Negri, 2000), but also to recognize that it can non be sheerd to this condition (Held et al. , 1999).Consequently, concerns and celebrations are generated by the increasing fragmentation of national and cultural identities (Morley&Robins, 1995). In response to this process of deterritorializing identity, impulses arise to reclaim local and national identities in a form of bulwark (Hall, 1995). This resistance is obscure because it is formed in relation to the transnational imaginings of the Self and the Other, stimulated by the constant circulation of people and mediated images through globalizations (Appadurai, 1996).These are irresolvable struggles and they demonstrate how globalization contributes to rather than eliminates incommensurability (Ang, 2003). Thus, while cultural identities can become territorialized and demarcated, for instance as Japanese, they are also challenged by the processes of deterritorialization activated through interaction and exchange. The meaning of Japanese is therefore open to re-articulation by both global and local forces allowing new strategic identities to emerge.These processes are evident in Murakamis soybean pl ant sauce strategy. Murakami demarcates the identity of Superflat as Japanese by proposing it as an affirmation of a Pop Art aesthetic that is born from Japan and searching from Western art a type of post-Pop (Murakami, 2005 152153). Murakami asserts Superflat as an example of the current influence of Japanese culture globally and as a model for a future aesthetic, thereby identifying the Otherness of Superflat in a positive way.Even though Murakami acknowledges that this sensibility emerges from the transformations arising from the influences of Western culture, he simultaneously reaffirms the originality of Superflat as a Japanese sensibility. This is what he refers to as his soy sauce strategy. Japanese contemporary art has a long history of trying to hide the soy sauce. Perhaps they will confirm the flavor to please the foreign palette, or perhaps theyll simply throw the soy sauce out the window and unconditionally embrace the tastes of French or Italian cuisine, becoming the Westerners whose model of contemporary art they follow I see the need to create a universal taste a super C tongue without cheating myself and my Japanese core I touch on to blend seasonings I may have mixed in the universal forms and presentations of French, Italian, Chinese, or separate ethnic cuisines and I am vigilant in my search for their best points but the central axis of my creation is stable at its core, my standard of mantrap is one cultivated by the Japan that has been my home since my birth in 1962. (Kaikaikiki Co.Ltd & Museum of Contemporary Art Tokyo, 2001 130) This essential Japanese identity of Superflat is reinforced by the ways in which Murakami connects (visually and ideologically) the kawaii (cute) forms of anime and manga with the playful aesthetic of Edo period artists and the two-dimensional formal properties of Japanese screen painting. This foundation is then used to propose Superflat as an change lineage of Japanese visual culture, one that bre aks away from the canon of kindai bijutsu and Western art history.Edo functions in Superflat as the determinant of its cultural authenticity that is, as the DNA of Superflat (Murakami, 2000 25). Edo is presented as the site of Japans cultural tradition and subsequently as a symbol of its Japaneseness. This is a convention from modern Japanese discourses in which Edo becomes the repository of nostalgic yearnings for a pre-modern, traditional Japan (Ivy, 1995).In the late 1980s and early 1990s this was extended to become part of the debates on Japans (post)modernity postmodern cultural expressions in Japan were considered to be a revival of Edo concepts and practices and thus particularly indigenous to Japan (Karatani, 1997). However, as Gluck (1998) points out, the definition of authentic and traditional Japanese expression in relation to a fixed point of origin in Edo culture has been heavily challenged. Therefore, Murakamis use of Edo to mark the culturally authentic transmission of the Superflat aesthetic should be treated with caution.At the same time, Murakami has emphasized that he is not presenting Superflat as the definitive interpretation of Japanese art nor does he claim a unified identity for Japan Unfortunately, I can never expire Japan a fixed shape. I cannot meet my real self. Nor can I discern what art really is I thought I could solve the problem by lining up a series of images in a powerful procession that words could not clarify. (Murakami, 2000 9) Even this position can be critiqued.Murakami self-consciously demonstrates his awareness of the historical interaction between Japan and the West and stresses the interbreeding history of Superflat. However, he also tends to celebrate Japans skill in assimilating and domesticating foreign influences, echoing other discourses on Japans hybridity as a national-cultural trait (Tobin, 1992), which paradoxically reconstructs Japans hybridity as an essential identity. Murakamis intention to create an epistemological context for Superflat is explicitly part of his aim to sell work in internationalist art markets First, gain recognition on site (New York). Furthermore, adjust the flavourer to meet the needs of the venue. 2 With this recognition as my parachute, I will subscribe my landing back in Japan. Slightly adjust the flavorings until they are Japanese. Or perhaps entirely modify the flora to meet Japanese tastes. 3 keister overseas, into the fray. This time, I will make a presentation that doesnt shy away from my true soy sauce nature, but is understandable to my audience. (Kaikaikiki Co. Ltd & Museum of Contemporary Art Tokyo, 2001131)The impulse in Superflat towards the affirmation of a national-cultural aesthetic can be considered as a form of self-Orientalism an identity formation that is constructed in relation to the Western Oriental gaze (Said, 1995). While self-Orientalism has been considered (although not specifically in relation to Superflat) as an empowered s trategy, because it appropriates the Wests gaze of Japan and re-packages it for the same audience (Mitchell, 2000), others have considered it collusive to Orientalism and a continuation of the Japan/West binary construction (Iwabuchi, 1994).This self-Oriental identity is complicated by a number of factors. First, Superflat does echo formulaic discursive constructions of a Japan/West binary, which obscures the connections and power relations in this structure. In particular, Superflat can also be interpreted as being part of the discourses on Japanese identity, particularly the emergence of nihonjinron and postmodernism post-1970s in relation to Japans economic and technological influences (Befu, 2001). There was a tendency in both these strains of discourse to emphasize Japans national identity as uncomparable and different from the West and the East.Secondly, while Murakami acknowledges the Western influences on the Superflat aesthetic, his simultaneous transposing of this hybrid identity into a reinforcement of a Japanese identity, characterized by cultural assimilation and hybridization, reinforces a unified national-cultural identity. This identity is supported by the references between Superflat and already existing discursive constructions of Japanese culture as post-modern and the interpretation of the two-dimensional properties of Japanese art, which will be discussed later in the paper.Thirdly, Superflat is also part of ongoing trade relations and cross-fertilizations of visual culture forms between Japan and the West particularly since the late 19th century. These include the adoption of bijutsu in the Meiji period, the popular expending of Japanese visual culture in the West (in late nineteenth century Japonisme and since the 1990s with the consumption of anime and manga), and the post-1945 influx of commercial culture from the United States and its subsequent impact on the development of the anime and manga industries (Kinsella, 2000).In some w ays, the self-Orientalism of Superflat can be interpreted as a post-colonial defensive reaction. Superflat is presented by Murakami as a localized expression of cultural uniqueness resisting the global hegemony of Western art and transcending the imported colonialist history of bijutsu by presenting icons of excessive otherness (Matsui, 2001 48). This resistance, in turn, strategically uses identity as a commodity in Western art markets.By explicitly emphasizing the differences of Superflat, and Superflat as Japanese, Murakami becomes open to criticism that he is merely providing a futurist Orientalist spectacle for Western audiences (Shimada, 2002 188189). Furthermore, the ever-present danger with this position is that the centrality of the United States and atomic number 63 is re-asserted rather than challenged. Murakami explicitly reinforces this centrality through his statements regarding the importance of his profile in New York, London and capital of France (Kelmachter, 2002 76).Murakamis strategy of merging artistic expression and the commercial imperatives of Orientalism also echoes the export art of the late nineteenth century in which new works were created for foreign markets, according to the dictates of those markets (Conant, 1991 8284). Export marks were deliberately constructed to appeal to the taste for Japonisme that was fashionable in Europe and the United States at the time. Murakamis affirmation of Superflat as a Japanese-made model for the future also reiterates the recent rhetoric on Japans global cultural power in relation to the export of anime and manga (McGray, 2002).These discourses emphasize the symbolic (and subsequent economic) capital of the Japaneseness of anime and manga texts and they deliberately emphasize the commodity potentials of self- Orientalism. Murakami draws attention to these politics in the Superflat exhibition Coloriage (Coloring) at the posterior Cartier by referring to it as post-Japonisme (Kelmachter, 2002 1 03104), thereby both connecting with the past market in Japanese art and suggesting a new contemporary context for the consumption of Superflat art.However, to reduce Superflat to a collusive Orientalism, or to see it as just a commodification of identity in a pejorative sense, misinterprets the dynamics in play. Murakami is both proffering resistance as well as marketing his work strategically. Firstly, Murakami articulates his identity through the exhibition structures of the West as well as through conventional signifiers of Japanese aesthetics in order to establish his profile and to sell his work.Yet he also acknowledges the ambivalences of his own position and the playfulness of this global soy sauce flavoring In the worldview that holds delicate flavoring as the only concept of beauty with any value, heavy flavouring is taboo, and too much stimulation is definitely problematic In order to create something that is understandable both to the West and Japan, what is needed is an ambivalent flavor and presentation . (Kaikaikiki Co. Ltd & Museum of Contemporary Art Tokyo, 2001 131)Furthermore, dominant scholarly arguments on the popular consumption of anime and manga outside Japan hold that these forms express plural cultural identities and, as Allison (2000) shows, are detached from specific representations of space and place. This suggests that the consumption of Superflat, like that of anime and manga, is not simply based on a desire for reflected images of Japaneseness as a cultural Other rather, it offers audiences a flexibility of alternate identities, free from specific geo-cultural connections.It can also be argued that a critical factor in the reception of Murakamis works in the United States and Europe has been the familiarity of the Superflat aesthetic to anime and manga as part of a common rather than Orientalised visual vocabulary. Superflat echoes the paradox of affirming the non-nationality of texts, while also presenting them as expressions of national-cultural identity. However, there is another way to explain this contradiction of Superflat between the affirmation of non-national and specific cultural identities.The critical theorist Yoda Tomiko (2000) presents contemporary anime forms as a useful example of a coterminous fluidity between local codes that are interchangeable and coexistent with non-local elements. Elements in the text can be swapped around and adapted for different audiences, and these elements are simultaneously collated with non-specific elements drawn from a wide variety of sources therefore, the overall form remains transportable as well as expressing cultural proximity.While this process of accommodation is not new, what Yoda indicates is that it is increasingly becoming a normative process within the logic of postmodern consumer society. The local identity expressed in Superflat utilizes the connections with Edo and anime and manga culture to articulate its cultural specificity and yet it also expresses a postmodern fluidity and self-reflexivity that enables it to be globally circulated. The following section demonstrates the multifarious local/global codes and cultures in Murakamis figure sculpture My Lonesome Cowboy. Superflat IdentityTakashi Murakami may have been the happiest at Sothebys Auction on May 14th. My Lonesome Cowboy, his larger-than-life sculpture of a boy waving an ejaculate lasso, brought in $15. 2 million quintupling the artists previous record at auction. Just like what Alexandra Munro has written, Murakami does not merely appropriate the manga and anime based worlds of otaku subculture he operates within them. His lushly bright, mutant characters, all of which have names, act coveted by convenience store consumers as much as they are sought after by international art community. Murakamis works always act in the nonuple spaces in and between Japan and the West, referencing there intertwined relations. My Lonesome Cowboy can be linked to a number of f amiliar aesthetic forms from both Western and Japanese art history, thus it is a field of knowledge operating both within and between the social, cultural and aesthetic conditions of East and West. My Lonesome Cowboy is characterized by a large lasso of ejaculate reminiscent of Jackson Pollocks splash paintings in the late 1940s.The confident masturbatory pose of the figure can be interpreted as a parodic and sexualized reference to the phallo-centric ideology of Western Modernism, in which the autonomy and expressive subjectiveness (as well as the masculinity) of artists such as Pollock was celebrated. The title itself, My Lonesome Cowboy, also references the heroism and romanticism of the iconic image of the cowboy, which was celebrated in relation to the New York Abstract Expressionist painters, and was parodied in the homo-erotica of Andy Warhols film Lonesome Cowboys (1969).The stream of ejaculation fluid is both an exaggerated and grotesque parody of otaku (hard-core anime and manga fans) imaginings and masturbatory activities and a parody of the unique thump of the brush of the artist. The overt and ironic decorativeness of the fiberglass splash subverts the modernist ideology of the unique mark of the artists hand as an expression of interior subjectivity in a manner that is reminiscent of Roy Lichtensteins series of screen-prints, Brushstrokes, created in the mid to late 1960s.These references are then combined with recognizable Japanese aesthetic markers. For example, the Dragon Ball Z character Goku is the model for the head of the cowboy the splash of ejaculate is also reminiscent of the static dynamism of Hokusais ukiyo-e print View of Mount Fuji through High Waves off Kanagawa (ca. 18291833). The standing pose of the figure with the power and energy concentrated in the hips thrust forward, accentuated by the expulsion of liquid from the penis, is something that has also been specifically linked to the style of character pose developed in anime ( Kaikaikiki Co.Ltd & Museum of Contemporary Art Tokyo, 2001 96). This is origined to the Western comic hero pose in which the concentration of power and muscular strength is emphasized in the pectoral muscles (96). The sense of dynamism between stasis and movement in My Lonesome Cowboy can also be linked to various forms of compositional structures in Japanese screen-paintings and anime. One of the key features of early Japanese television animation is an aesthetic based on the frozen pose, in which a figure can leap in the air and freeze the pose, unfixed from gravity.Part of the understanding behind the frozen moment in animation was a response to budget constraints and efficient production processes by freezing the frame and allowing the dialogue to continue fewer frames of animated movement were needed for the narrative (Lamarre, 2002 335). As a stylistic tendency, the technique of freezing the action in animation relies on selecting the some dramatic or aesthetic moment to fr eeze, creating a dramatic pause before the action (2002 335336).Therefore, what is evident is that Murakami simultaneously articulates Japanese and Western aesthetic markers in My Lonesome Cowboy. While these references can be individually demarcated and identified, there is also an interchangeable flexibility that is addressed. More specifically, what this means is that the splash of semen can simultaneously reference Pollock, Lichtenstein, Hokusai and Kanada. Thus, it becomes a fluid and slippery signifier. This can be explained as one of the reasons for the global prominence and popularity of Superflat and Murakami.Furthermore, the art historical and popular cultural references would be considered relatively conventional markers for audiences conversant with these texts. Many of the Japanese works in the Superflat catalogue are held in Western collections, including Hokusais Great Wave. Murakamis works are therefore characterized by a particular inter-determinacy, which enables h im to manipulate the Japanese identity of the works while also utilizing the familiarity of the visual references for Western audiences. This trategy is further complicated by the overlapping historical aesthetic relationship between Japan and the West. First, the concept of Superflatness, as an aesthetic of two-dimensionality, reinforces the Western image of Japan as a culture of surface. The development of the flat surface, which has been interpreted by Clement Greenberg as the underpinning aesthetic realization of Western modern painting, was influenced by Japanese art, particularly ukiyo-e prints, in the nineteenth century (Evett, 1982 ixx).In particular, an aesthetic of two-dimensionality was identified as a distinctive feature of Japanese art in late nineteenth century Europe (1982 30). 13 In contrast to the Western discursive construct of Japanese art as inherently two-dimensional, Western practices of linear sentiment by this time had already influenced Japanese art. 14 Sec ondly, because anime and manga are increasingly familiar to consumers outside of Japan, particularly since their export in the 1990s, they have become part of the database of visual aesthetics of artists and fans outside of Japan (Craig, 2000 7).The complex visual cultural relationships between Japan, United States and European art are more politically intertwined than these explicit and obvious references imply because they are influenced by ideologies and constructions of national identity. The image of Japan as a culture of surface continued into the twentieth century and was translated from the mid-1980s into the confirmation of Japans post modernity Japan as a culture of surface was now celebrated (Barthes, 1982 Field, 1997) and it was constructed (arguably) as the epitome of post-modernity (Miyoshi and Harootunian). 5 This was contrasted to Western modernist discourse of the surface as a manifestation of interior subjectivity. Postmodernism presented a challenge to this concep t of originality and interior/exterior distinctions through theories of simulacrum, pastiche and the collapsing of surface/depth models as developed by Baudrillard (1983), Jameson (1991), and Virilio (1991). Even the discourses that emphasized Japans creative skill in domesticating foreign imports (Tobin, 1992) as a contrast to the earlier pejorative concept of mimicry reinforced the image of Japan as an appropriator of different styles or surfaces.While the distinction between surface and depth is not absent in Japan, the duality between surface and depth in Western modern epistemology (and even in subsequent discourses that challenge it) is not of necessity expressed using those dichotomous terms in Japanese culture rather, the surface is considered to be meaningful and creative. For example, the art historian Tsuji Nobuo (2002 18) identifies the decorative surface as providing a link between the ordinary and everyday sphere and the extraordinary metaphysical realm.In this way, t he decorative surface does not lack meaning but is lively as an intermediary expression and aesthetic. Hendry (1993) also identifies the importance of wrapping in Japanese culture, in which the external layers, whether they be clothing, architecture or gifts, form the critical meaning structure. Wrapping operates as a method of accumulating layers of meaning that are not normally present in the unwrapped object (1993 17). This process inverts the Western philosophical privileging of the core (the object inside the wrapping) as the primary site of meaning and the external wrapping as obscuring the object.In fact Hendry argues that the meaning of the enclosed object and the layers of wrapping are conceptually embedded in each other and cannot be separated (1993 17). While flatness and the emphasis on surface role and decoration in Superflat art can thus be considered an exploitation of the Western construct of Japan as a culture of surface aesthetics, it can also be interpreted as a n assertion of the creative value of the surface in Japanese culture. In this latter interpretation Superflatness becomes a unique aesthetic form that articulates multiple and active spaces, not the erasure or reduction of meaning.The concept of active flatness and continual transformation is a useful approach to understanding the Superflat aesthetic. It is difficult to differentiate a singular point of origin or a stable and unified subject in the multiple cultural identities embedded in My Lonesome Cowboy. Such is the shared history and cross-fertilization of aesthetic forms that these multiple layers of references and aesthetic histories of Japan and the United States/Europe present a significant complexity to the explicit identification of these references as Japanese or Western.Furthermore, to presume that they will even be decoded as signifying geo-cultural aesthetic territories is every bit problematic. It is evident that Murakamis explicitly playful references act as heterog eneous and malleable signifiers of identity, and thus can be readily interpreted as a postmodern expression of multiplicity. Furthermore, the inter-textual references to Japanese art history, Western art history, and imagined constructions of Japanese identity, play to the knowingness of audiences. The Westernization of Superflat and its Japaneseness articulate two forms that can be accessed by Murakami from his database of codes.