What Is It To Be A Reflective Teacher Education Essay

Student instructors should non be trained merely to execute accomplishments in certain prescribed ways but, must hold the mental tools to work on professional undertakings to be adaptable and critical to cognize, resourceful, and originative ( Howey & A ; Strom, 1987 ) . Student instructors should be coached in brooding pattern and given greater independency in determination devising, as they can larn to pattern these critical accomplishments and take duty for their determinations, successes, and failures in order to develop into a professional instructor ( Becker 1962 ; Schon, 1984 ) . Therefore, it is of import to be recognised as a professional because: it recognizes the world of mundane life in the schoolroom as a instructor ( See Appendix 1, 2 and 7 ) Teacher as a professional: It is of import to see the graduated table of which instructors are considered professionals. The standard attack of Hoyle and John ( 1995 ) leads to a figure of characteristics that the signifiers the step of an business to be regarded as a professional, such as the definition of a profession in relation to its societal map centre, high accomplishment set and independent decision-making and adaptability, etc. In conformity with Hoyle and John ( 1995 ) , these steps are systematically demonstrated in learning patterns and are embedded as portion of the instruction criterions, ( See Appendix 1, 2 and 4 ) . It is of import to acknowledge that our cognition and apprehension of the countries can alter dramatically over clip. This determines its professional credibleness. This explains why some businesss now recognized as a professional, were non granted this acknowledgment in the yesteryear. For illustration, the complexness of the human organic structure was non known or understood until late. Simple solutions such as shed blooding patients for febrility, were used, and the limited cognition at the clip, appeared to â€Å" work † . Similarly, the simple position of instruction and acquisition, and the simple techniques, such as penalty, are applied and perceived as â€Å" working † . Just over a century physicians were non so different from members of other industries, and merely a little better than the therapist ( Berliner, 1987 ) . Medical instruction in Harvard, Massachusetts, dwelling of two semesters. The â€Å" art † of medical specialty is taught mostly †Å" on the occupation † . Presently, this is the instance with learning being taught â€Å" on the occupation † . Teachers are diffident to which class they belong to semi-professional, tradespersons or professional ( Burke, 1996 ) . As a consequence, they are frequently diffident of what they can truly inquire others such as, direction and ministerial organic structures or what demands other, such as parents, can do on them. Above all, they do non cognize what demands they should be doing of them. Expectations that a professional individual is considered appropriate for themselves are evidently different and more hard than a tradespersons ( Schon, 1984 ) . In add-on, when instructors are seen as professionals, they are cognizant that the quality of service that is expected of them, as they expect it to be from professionals for their demands, such as medical, attorneies ( Burke, 1996 ) . Etzioni ( 1969 ) preferred some professions to be classified as â€Å" semi-professionals. Harmonizing to him, the work twenty-four hours of a instructor is good regulated and capable to controls in countries, such as the demand for instructors to inform the parents about their kid ‘s advancement, school reviews and the publication of consequences of students in the rankings, to inform the independency of instructors. Therefore instructor can be seen as premier illustrations of semi-professionals. The Vision of Teacher as a professional allows broader parametric quantities for the entire development of instructors and learning. This should be an effectual manner to better self-image and promoting instructors to get the hang the basic accomplishments of instruction and supply a better service to pupils and parents. Teachers are, after all, do and implement determinations every twenty-four hours and every hr that traces the life and the hereafter of their students and the public assistance of their state, ( See Appendix 1 and 2 ; Downie, 1990 ) . The more you are cognizant of this fact and others, including the Department for Education, recognize and accept its deductions, the better the instruction will thrive ( See Appendix 5 ) . What is it to be a brooding instructor? In instruction, brooding pattern refers to the development of instructors to analyze their ain instruction methods and find what works best for pupils. It implies instructors consider the ethical deductions of schoolroom processs on the students ( Barbara, 2000 ) . The thought of contemplation in action is the hunt for experiences that connect with our feelings, and go toing our theories in usage. The instructor experiences surprise, perplexity, and confusion in a state of affairs that is unsure or alone. They reflect the state of affairs before them, and use old apprehensions that are already inexplicit in their behavior. The consequence is the building of new cognition to inform our actions in the state of affairs that unfolds before us ( Schon, 1984 ) . Contemplation on action is later carried out after the state of affairs. This may intend composing notes, things to speak to a caput instructor, etc. The act of contemplation on action allows us to pass clip researching why we acted as we did, and so on. Therefore, we developed a new series of inquiries and thoughts about our pattern ( See Appendix 3 and 7 ; Myers, 2011 ; Schon, 1984 ) . In this manner we can acquire involved with a state of affairs that we do non hold a complete apprehension but, hopefully, we can avoid large jobs, while â€Å" proving the Waterss † . When sing a state of affairs in which we are predisposed by and utilize our repertory and our frame of mention. As we work, we can convey fragments of memories and get down the building of edifice on our bing theories and appropriate responses to the new state of affairs ( See appendix 7 ; Myers, 2011 ) . Teachers in general, but possibly scientific discipline instructors in peculiar, have to confront new challenges all the clip in both what they teach ( because that is invariably developing and altering ) and how they teach it. This thought of reflection-in-action that was mentioned before where Schon ( 1984 ) identifies as being a more appropriate characteristic theoretical account for professionalism in times of alteration, requires instructors to take control of their professional acquisition and peculiarly to value the tacit cognition that they hold and which guides their schoolroom pattern. Becoming a professional scientific discipline instructor is non a instance of larning a predefined set of processs and a inactive organic structure of cognition ; it is about prosecuting with a dynamic and exciting topic and confronting the challenges of showing to pupils in an accessible manner. One of the positive facets of a scientific discipline instructor ‘s day-to-day life comes from working with others. Science instructors tend to work in sections. Indeed, there may be more contact and interaction between scientific discipline instructors than other capable specialisms, such as the demand to pass on with technicians on day-to-day footing to to the full fix a lesson, ( See Appendix 6 ) . Decision The art of brooding instruction must be personally fulfilling for instructors, but besides lead to a steady addition in the quality of instruction for kids. In fact, because it is evidence-based, brooding pattern in pupil instructors, freshly qualified instructors, staff and professionals with experience in meeting public presentation criterions and accomplishments. In the note, the construct of brooding instruction focal points on ends, values, and societal effects of instruction ( See appendix 7 ; Myers, 2011 ) .

Renal Problems And Septic Shock Health And Social Care Essay

Systemic inflammatory response syndrome ( SIRS ) is expressed as febrility or hypothermia, tachycardia, tachypnea which may be associated with leucocytosis or leukopenia. SIRS generates broad spread inflammatory reaction in organic structure in response to external abuse which is protective for an person when its effects are restricted to pathogens, in other state of affairss inflammatory reactions are hurtful when they are directed against normal tissues in add-on to pathogens. [ 1,2 ] SIRS can ensue from legion conditions but termed as Sepsis, merely when infection sets in and morbific agent is detected. Sepsis consequences from an single response to external infection, which begins with systemic redness ab initio, followed by curdling abnormalcies and eventually deranged fibrinolysis. When sepsis causes one or more organ disfunction, the syndrome is termed Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome ( MODS ) or terrible sepsis. [ 3 ] Sepsis-induced hypotension which is furnace lining to f luid boluses is termed Septic daze. Hypothermia associated with infected daze indicates hapless tegument and visceral perfusion, is normally associated with hapless forecast and high mortality rates of up to 30 to 40 % . Several serum biomarkers suggested holding diagnostic or predictive value in infected daze, but a unequivocal biomarker for everyday clinical usage is yet to be identified. One such marker is serum lactate which indicates pronounced hypoperfusion and tissue hypoxia in infected daze. Similarly serum Creatinine should besides be considered as marker of lessening organ perfusion in sepsis and Acute Kidney Injury should be regarded as index of ongoing organ harm and likely possibility of oncoming of infected daze. [ 4 ] AKI is due to sudden and drastic decrease in kidney map ( within 48 hours ) characterized by absolute addition in serum Creatinine ( & gt ; 50 % from baseline ) or a decrease in urine end product ( oliguria of & lt ; 0.5 ml/kg/hour for & gt ; 6 hours ) . Nephritic hypoperfusion and ischaemia during infected daze amendss nephritic tubules taking to acute cannular mortification ( ATN ) and have been demonstrated to be a common etiologic factor for AKI development during sepsis [ 5,6 ] . ATN was found to be a consistent histopathological determination in these patients, this would strongly propose that ischaemia and nephritic tubular cell mortification are likely an of import pathogenetic mechanism. [ 7,8 ] Acute kidney hurt have marked impact on the result of critically sick patients. Disease badness tonss such as the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation ( APACHE II ) and Sequential Organ Failure Assessment mark ( SOFA ) both have included nephritic disfunction as forecaster of morbidity and mortality ; on the other manus liver disfunction tonss, coagulopathy, thrombocytes and other critical organ maps are non much stressed in APACHE II hiting system. To set up a unvarying definition of nephritic harm, RIFLE categorization was formulated which characterizes Risk, Injury, Failure, Loss and End-stage Kidney ( RIFLE ) . [ 9 ] An of import facet of the RIFLE categorization is that it grades the badness of acute kidney hurt on the footing of alterations in serum creatinine and urine end product from the baseline status. [ 10 ] Urine end product is an of import physiologic mark of organic structure fluid position, and unstable instability is common in critically sick patients due to extravasation of fluid into extravascular infinite or due to 3rd infinite losingss and eventually the nephritic disfunction. This farther suggest that reduced organ perfusion in infected daze plays a cardinal function in development of AKI taking to cut down creatinine clearance and increased serum creatinine degrees. [ 11,12 ] In this survey we compared increasing serum creatinine degrees with plasma lactates and SOFA tonss to observe oncoming of sepsis and infected daze and to prove the hypothesis that ongoing acute kidney hurt can bespeak reduced organ perfusion and oncoming of infected daze in critically sick patients.Patients and Methods:This survey was carried out to happen a correlativity between lifting serum creatinine degrees and oncoming of infected daze in 115 critically sick patients admitted in ICU and were managed following Surviving Sepsis guidelines. [ 13 ] Human ethical blessing was taken by the institutional moralss commission. Written informed consents were obtained from control topics and patients or their relations. The control groups were the healthy relations attach toing the patient. Entire 90 controls were taken, among them 65 were males and 25 females with a mean ( SD ) age of 36.5 ( 8 ) old ages. Among patient group 67 were males and 48 females with mean ( SD ) age 37.5 ( 6 ) old ages. Patients included in our survey had either of the undermentioned characteristics: ( 1 ) Clinical characteristics proposing infection ; ( 2 ) Core temperature & gt ; 38AÂ °C or & lt ; 35AÂ °C ; ( 3 ) Heart beats & gt ; 100/min ; ( 4 ) Respiratory rates & gt ; 30 breaths/min or demand for supportive mechanical airing and ( 5 ) Inadequate organ map or daze within 12 hours of registration. Patients excluded were: ( 1 ) aged patients older than 75 old ages ; ( 2 ) NYHA category III or IV patients ; ( 3 ) liver inadequacy ( Child C ) ; ( 4 ) HIV, HBsAg positive serology, Cancer patients. Demographic characteristics like age, sex, primary site of infection, morbific beings and disease badness scores including Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation Scores ( APACHE II ) and Sequential Organ system Failure Assessment mark ( SOFA ) were recorded for each patient ‘s at the clip of admittance in ICU and later. The plasma of these patients was tested for serum creatinine and lactates degrees at the clip of entry in ICU, so after every 24 hours till their stay in ICU. All the samples collected and patient inside informations gathered during the survey were coded to look into for prejudice and patient confidentiality was maintained as per the guidelines for surveies of human patients. Blood sample aggregation: First blood sample was collected prior to get down of antimicrobic, steroid therapy or vasopressors. Blood samples were collected from cardinal venous line ( 9 milliliter ) into sterilized tubings incorporating 1ml trisodium citrate ( TSC ) at the clip of patient admittance I ICU and later. Plasma was separated by extractor at 10,000 revolutions per minute for 15 min. The plasma was stored at -70AÂ °C for farther analysis and repeated freezing melt of samples was avoided in order to forestall debasement of plasma.Statistical analysis:The informations were analyzed by nonparametric analysis of discrepancy ( ANOVA ) with Newman-Keuls multiple comparing post-test. The relation between serum creatinine degrees, plasma lactates and APACHE & A ; SOFA mark was tested by finding the Pearson correlativity coefficient ( R ) . A P-value of less than 0.05 was considered important. All statistical analyses were performed with the Graph Pad InStat 5.0 demo plan ( Graph P ad Software, USA ) .Consequences:Among 115 patients admitted in ICU during the period April 2009 to May 2010, 45 patients were of SIRS, 39 patients were in sepsis and 31 patients in province of infected daze ( Table 1 ) . Sepsis was diagnosed on the footing of specific civilization studies from assorted possible sites of infection, including blood civilization study. Out of 115 patients studied there were 67 male patients and 48 females with a mean ( SD ) age of 37.5 ( 6 ) old ages. Mean serum creatinine degrees in healthy control group was 0.83 AÂ ± 0.26 mg/dl, runing from 0.4 to 1.6 mg/dl. In SIRS group, the average serum creatinine degrees were 3.45 AÂ ± 1.26 mg/dl, runing from 1.2 to 6.2 mg/dl ( Figure 1 ) . The APACHE II and SOFA score correlated linearly with serum creatinine degrees ( r2=0.74, P & lt ; 0.001 for APACHE & A ; r2=0.69, P & lt ; 0.001 for SOFA ; Figure2 ) bespeaking nephritic hurt with badness of redness. In sepsis patients average degrees were 7.15 AÂ ± 1.3, runing from 4.0 to 9.3 mg/dl. Pearson ‘s coefficient showed additive correlativity of serum creatinine and sepsis badness tonss ( r2 = 0.65, P & lt ; 0.001 for APACHE and r2 = 0.62, P & lt ; 0.001 for SOFA ; Figure2 ) . In patients of infected daze with nephritic disfunction really high serum creatinine degrees were observed with mean of 10.31 AÂ ± 2.29 mg/dl with values runing from 6.0 to 15.2 mg/dl, these values were significantly ( P & lt ; 0.01 ) higher than those with sep sis ( 7.01 AÂ ± 1.3 mg/dl ) , SIRS ( 3.49 AÂ ± 1.10 mg/dl ) and the control group ( 0.83 AÂ ± 0.26 mg/dl ) . Detection of metabolic acidosis in arterial blood gas analysis was evaluated farther by blood lactate appraisal ( Figure 3 ) . Blood lactate degrees in SIRS group were ( 5.14 AÂ ± 1.24mmol/L ) with scope from 2.2 to 7.8 mmol/L. Similarly blood lactate degrees in sepsis ( 7.73 AÂ ± 1.4mmol/L ) and infected daze group ( 9.53 AÂ ± 1.2mmol/L ) were significantly high ( 95 % CI in sepsis 7.25 to 8.21 ; daze 8.9 to 10.16 mmol/L ) . In control group mean values were 0.93 AÂ ± 0.39mmol/L ( 95 % CI 0.84 to 1.0 mmol/L ) . In order to detect a relation between extent of nephritic hurt and oncoming of infected daze, creatinine clearance ( taken as step of nephritic map ) was so compared with blood lactate degrees ( taken as index of anaerobiotic metamorphosis and daze ) , Pearson ‘s coefficient showed reverse relation between lifting lactate degrees and Creatinine clearance in patients with terrible sepsis and infected daze ( Figure 4 ; r2=0.48, P & lt ; 0.001in sepsis ; r2=0.56, P & l t ; 0.001in infected daze ) . The patients included in this survey were non given any nephrotoxic drugs and drug dose were modified as per criterion chronic nephritic disease guideline to forestall farther nephritic hurt [ 14 ] .Discussion:Patients come oning to infected daze during their stay in ICU may hold altered sensorium, deranged liver map, malabsorption syndrome or may hold respiratory trouble. It was observed in our survey that all such patients with infected daze have one common characteristic of crazed kidney map with AKI. The pathophysiology of AKI in infected daze is ill understood due to miss of histopathologic information, which in bend requires nephritic biopsy to observe any parenchymal or vascular alterations in nephritic tissue ; such biopsies are non routinely performed in most ICU set up. [ 15,16 ] In absence of such information, we performed an indirect appraisal of nephritic map during oncoming of infected daze. These observations were based on serum creatinin e degrees and creatinine clearance which was so correlated with disease badness tonss ( APACHE II and SOFA ) and serum lactate degrees ( index of anaerobiotic metamorphosis and daze ) . Assorted carnal surveies of AKI have been done which helps in more complex and invasive measurings of nephritic maps. [ 17 ] Most of these carnal surveies were based on either ischemia-reperfusion hurt or drug induced hurt and informations generated from such surveies may assist us in understanding the pathophysiology in a infected patient with AKI. A major paradigm developed from these observations in animate beings and worlds with daze is that AKI is due to nephritic hypoperfusion and ischaemia. This fact supported our position of utilizing AKI as index for decreased organ perfusion and oncoming of infected daze. [ 18 ] Under basal conditions blood flow to kidney is 360 ml/min/100gm of tissue where as blood flow to encephalon ( 50ml/min/100gm ) , bosom ( 70ml/min/100gm ) , lungs ( 25ml/min/100gm ) and liver ( 95ml/min/100gm ) . [ 19 ] Among all the variety meats, kidneys have really high flow rates, approximately three times higher than other critical variety meats, therefore metab olic maps of kidneys were more likely to be affected earliest by decrease in blood flow during infected daze, this may ensue non merely in a decrease in glomerular filtration but besides, in metabolic impairment perchance doing cell decease, acute cannular mortification and terrible AKI. [ 20 ] Glomerular filtration rate ( GFR ) is governed by glomerular filtration force per unit area, which in bend is determined by the relationship between the sensory nerve and motorial arteriolas. When the sensory nerve arteriola constricts due to hypoxia in infected daze, glomerular filtration force per unit area will fall and urine end product and GFR will besides diminish, ensuing reduced creatinine clearance and increased serum creatinine. [ 21 ] Arterial lactate concentration correlates with badness of infected daze and reflects metabolic changes associated with hemodynamic via media. Therefore, the association between high lactate degree and diminishing creatinine clearance are built-in to the badness of the daze and of multi-organ failure. [ 22 ] In add-on, epinephrine extract during infected daze besides enhances lactate production by itself ; the higher adrenaline dosage required in more terrible patients may besides hold contributed to this association. Following the natural history of infected daze in most ICU, it is impossible to happen patients deceasing of infected daze but without nephritic failure, the huge bulk of patients deceasing of multiorgan failure has a outstanding nephritic constituent and requires nephritic replacing therapy during their class in ICU. Renal biopsy during infected daze is non performed routinely because of important hazards owing to azotemic or infected coagulopathy and patient instability. However, this restriction does non impair the relevancy of our observations sing the pathophysiology of infected daze, as kidneys have highest blood flow per gm of tissue and AKI is changeless characteristic of terminal phase multiorgan failure so any via media in nephritic map in critically sick patients should be considered as indicant of decreased organ map and likely oncoming of infected daze.Decision:Kidneies are invariably involved in multiorgan failure of infected daze. Nephritic lesions associated with AKI in infected daze are more complex than the simple ague cannular hurt, so reduced creatinine clearance should be regarded as index of underlying mechanism of decreased organ perfusion and likely possibility of oncoming of infected daze in critically sick patients.

Traditional and Patient-centered Outcomes with Three Classes of Asthma Article

Traditional and Patient-centered Outcomes with Three Classes of Asthma Medication - Article Example By ‘clinical variables’, the authors mean traditional end-points like symptoms, reliever use, forced expiratory volume in one second percent predicted, morning peak expiratory flow and airway hyperresponsiveness; ‘subjective variables’ mean patient-centred benefits like quality of life, patient global assessments and the feeling of improvement as determined by asthma control questionnaire. There are 2 hypotheses in this study which are: 1) Some traditional measurements (clinical variables) of improvement during asthma treatment may not reflect the estimation of benefit by the patient. 2) Patients may benefit (subjective variables) from a specific class of asthma medication in ways which were not captured by the measurement of lung function. Measures of asthma control are a much-debated topic in the recent times. This is because there are various measures to determine the efficacy of treatment. Most researchers use lung function and clinical improvement as criteria for improvement; even the international guidelines are based on these. However, what the researchers perceive as improvement may not be the same in case of patients. Patients may have their own meaning of improvement and only if they feel that a particular class of medicine is effective will they adhere to treatment. This is the basis of the hypotheses in the article under study. This study included 58 subjects from three sites in Sydney and Melbourne, Australia. Only those with mild to moderate asthma, who had previously used a short-acting ß2-agonist with/without an inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) 500  µg beclomethasone equivalent and in the age group 16 to 75 years, were included in the study. In all subjects, ICS treatment was ceased at an entry to the study. Those with mild to moderate asthma were only considered because, in reality, these patients need only monotherapy and they are symptomatic enough to show a treatment response.  Ã‚  

The Viability of Primary and Secondary Qualities Essay

The Viability of Primary and Secondary Qualities - Essay Example The essence of the philosophical debate, therefore, centered on Berkeley’s refusal to believe that reality consisted of abstractions that could be separated from a material object. In order to explore this debate in more depth, this essay will examine Berkeley’s critique of Locke regarding the viability of primary and secondary qualities. As a preliminary matter, for Berkeley, the proffered distinction between primary and secondary qualities, an integral theoretical concept underpinning John Locke’s notion of Abstract Ideas, was an issue of fundamental importance. Our knowledge of the world around us, in Berkeley’s view, was dependent on the viability of this distinction. Berkeley’s ultimate rejection of this distinction, and the theory of Abstract Ideas was bold; Locke, after all, was not the first philosopher to believe in the validity of the distinction. Indeed, Berkeley challenged some of the greatest thinkers as the distinction had also been em braced by such luminaries as Descartes, Newton, and Galileo. A brief presentation of Locke’s approach to primary and secondary qualities is necessary because it highlights the bases of Berkeley’s attacks and because Locke’s work served as the authoritative statement of the viability of the distinction between primary and secondary qualities.... He also pointed out the epistemological problems which, he asserted, rendered Locke's distinction nothing more than speculation. Locke, in Berkeley's view, was hardly an empiricist. Berkeley could simply not accept Locke's assertion that an underlying quality could be separated from the mind. Locke stated, by contrast, that a quality was a power that was capable of producing an idea in our mind. This definition was significant because it separated the quality from our mind; more particularly, Locke established a causal relationship in which a quality inherent in an object caused us to have an idea about that object. Berkeley, because he rejected the separation, also rejected the notion of causation. Berkeley's strongest criticisms, however, derived from Locke's attempt to divide a quality into two specific types. This criticism dealt with Locke's attempts to draw a distinction between what he termed primary qualities and secondary qualities. Locke characterised primary qualities as being inseparable from the object being observed. Everything had fundamental properties. These fundamental properties were constant. Locke viewed solids, extensions, figures, motion or rest, and number as primary qualities; Berkeley, for the reasons mentioned below, argued and demonstrated that these primary qualities did not exist. The denial of these primary qualities served as the basis for his rejection of the notion of abstraction of ideas. Berkeley stated that these qualities were illusory and therefore could not produce in us ideas about the object being observed. Ideas were ideas and nothing more. Nor did Berkeley accept the premise that a

Law of Tort Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Law of Tort - Term Paper Example According to Hodgson and Lewthwaite, negligence can be defined as an act of being careless. There are three main elements of negligence in tort. First, a legal duty must exist, secondly, there must be breach of the legal duty and thirdly, damaged must have been suffered because of breach of legal duty. The plaintiff (claimant) must prove beyond reasonable doubt that the defendant owed him or her legal duty of care. Negligence is recognizable in the court of law only where the relationship between the defendant and claimant give rise to the legal duty of care. For example, a doctor who operates on a patient and leaves surgical equipment in the patient’s body is liable for negligence. Statutory torts are civil wrongdoings that have legislative backing. The statutes impose duties to private and public entities that cause the tort to compensate or remedy the injured as defined by law. To be valid, the statute must impose a specified duty on the defendant. For example, if legislati on (statute) imposes a duty on the employer to take care of the employees’ welfare, then the courts always construe the statute as giving rise to a statutory tort. If the employer fails to take care of the employees’ welfare and the employees sustain injuries or suffer losses as a result, the employer (defendant) is guilty of statutory tort and shall compensate the employees as per the requirements of the guiding legislation. Intentional wrongdoing is consciously harming someone to achieve a predetermined objective.

LEACH protocol in Wireless Sensor Networks Research Paper - 1

LEACH protocol in Wireless Sensor Networks - Research Paper Example Low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH) is a communications protocol that has overcome some of the limitations of various routing protocols on wireless sensor networks. It is mainly meant for wireless sensor networks where an end user intends to remotely monitor and control his/her environment. To achieve this, data obtained from various nodes is sent to a focal base station in the sensor networks; which enables the end user to access the network. Wireless sensor networks have found use in the economy of late and therefore the need to manage the energy constraints. Localization, fusion, and routing have been the areas of interests especially in dealing with the constraints of energy in the wireless sensor networks. Energy is determinant in the duration and lifetime of the system. Many studies and advancements have been carried out to solve energy management in various wireless sensor nodes. Cluster routing protocols have also been improved to increase energy management in WS Ns. It is undeniable that clustering is one of the most proven ways of prolonging the lifetime of networks for the wireless sensor networks which are energy constrained .The dissipation of energy in networks has been at the Centre stage for the effective functioning and lifetime of systems. Wireless distribution microsensor systems enable many networks found in the military and public domain. The dissipation of energy is therefore important in the wireless networks since it determines their effectiveness and reliability. The discussion in the below paper will analyze five reviewed academic journals to analyze the thesis statement that; the low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy protocol (LEACH) detects the faults on the network by transmitting and analyzing the periodical queries from the centralized node and increases the life span of the sensor nodes by

The Thrill of Hiking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

The Thrill of Hiking - Essay Example The moment I planned to engage in a summer trip to Mount Whitney, my mind concocts images of trekking an adventurous path. I envision a group of excited friends with compactly prepared knapsacks on their backs frantic to the summit. Talks about reaching the apex amidst the blue horizon increase. The anticipation on the eve of the journey sends shivers to one’s senses precluding the natural invitation for slumber. At dusk, the excitement begins to unfold with the warm embrace of the rising sun as the backdrop. Hikers begin an aspired trek to the glorious destination. The smell of crisp brown fallen leaves cracks from each step, each pace at the trodden trail. The dewdrops from flora tingle the back of hikers’ hands and arms as each passes by bushes, shrubs and woody plants. No one can ignore the jubilant chirping of a California quail that seems to accompany the stompers to their ascent. After several challenging hours and hundreds of miles of walk, dribbling perspirations continue to mire vision like drizzles on windshields. A quick rehydrating drink from filtered cold water quenched our thirsts. A dissipated rest under a perfectly shaded pine provided the opportunity to restore energy and leg work. A gush of trickles from a nearby stream signals the change in humidity – the journey embarks on its climax. The warmness of the humid air eventually evolves into sporadic ice and snow at the summit. Nothing can compare to standing in a remarkably magnificent place that seemed to be on top of the world to enjoy and share the expanse, not only of mountain ranges, intermittent with deep ravine and valleys unreached by man but of the entire sight of the universe. Despite aching feet and legs, with exhausted physique, hikers like me, descent the slopes with minds planning the next adventurous journey.

Writing project Part 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Writing project Part 2 - Essay Example It therefore seeks to justify the need through policy formulation, funding through research and development and technical initiatives to realize energy efficiency. Annotated bibliography Patridge, Robert B. Energy Efficiency: Challenges and Trends for Electric Utilities. S.l.: Diane Pub Co, 2003. http://www.asu.edu/title/energy-efficiency-challenges-and-trends-for-electric-utilities/oclc/795292357 Patridge defines energy efficiency as any positive measures taken to reduce energy consumption. He further states that this involves the deliberate substitute of more energy efficient equipments to produce the same amount of energy with less electricity and changing consumer behavior to cut energy use. He is of the view that energy efficiency is achieved through replacing, upgrading or maintaining existing equipment to reduce the amount of energy needs in lighting, heating, cooling, propelling machines and transportation. I am of the opinion that energy efficiency therefore contributes grea ter energy productivity and economic efficiency as opposed to renewable energy alternatives.... The Wall Street Journal, Before Adding Try Reducing by Sari Krieger. 2012. http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052970203771904574179270925771280 The U.S. government continues to offer a lot of subsidies and tax incentives to expand renewable energy instead of committing funds to energy efficiency and subsidize conservation. Susan Krieger a reporter for Dow Jones Clean Technology Insights in New York notes that billions of funds are pledged in support of renewable energy instead of encouraging the use of less energy in industrial production and domestic use. Those in favor of energy conservation argue that we need more subsidies and tax incentives on insulation, light emitting diodes (LED) in building and industrial systems which in the long-run result to less waste of energy in cooling, heating and lighting. Natalie Mims an energy consultant at Rocky Mountain Institute, Snowmans, Colo says that renewable energy often costs more, take longer to recoup on investment compared to energy efficiency measures which tend to receive less subsidies, tax incentives and funding particularly in research and development. From my point of view I think that newer energy conservation technology may be cost effective even with a high initial cost but are also yet to be embraced by the wider public due to unavailable information. The Natural Resources Defense Council. Renewable Energy For America, Harvesting the Benefits of Home-grown Renewable Energy. 2013. http://www.nrdc.org/energy/ According to a recent study by the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) of America, developing clean renewable energy sources has not only the potential to add to our power supply but also enhance sustainability and environmental protection.

Knowledge Management in Emirates Secondary Schools Assignment

Knowledge Management in Emirates Secondary Schools - Assignment Example In this essay the researcher presents his proposal for a piece of research, which is aimed to investigate the relationship between the current state of management, technology and culture and the knowledge management activities in the Emirates secondary schools. The researcher also hopes that this study will promote an improvement of the existing knowledge management practices in the UAE educational system and make a contribution in positive changes in the country economy at a whole. The modern education system in the UAE is based basically on the same fundamentals as educational systems of many other world nations – on Western pedagogical models and the current K-12 curriculum. However, it differs profoundly by its cultural and political context. One of the major distinctions of the system is the lack of qualified national teachers. Results of the study presented by Muysken discusses the causes of the deficient educational system in the UAE, the implications of this system and main factors constraining knowledge transfer in the UAE schools. The results prove evidently the necessity of improvement of the educational system of the Emirates, where the effective KM may be crucial. This essay suggests that this research will be a remarkable step towards the deeper understanding of nature and particular features of these supporting factors regarding the UAE educational system. The researcher believes that this study will be also helpful for researchers who are going to conduct further research in the area of KM in education.

Flat Tax in UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Flat Tax in UK - Essay Example Central government, however, generates its revenues mainly from income tax, national insurance contributions, value added tax, corporation tax and fuel duty. Definition: "A flat tax, also called a proportional tax, is a system that taxes all entities in a class (typically either citizens or corporations) at the same rate (as a proportion of income), as opposed to a graduated, or progressive, scheme. The term flat tax is most often discussed in the context of income taxes."(Expert Report 2005) At first confined to academic conversation and a few small islands, the flat tax has lately been introduced in numerous of the ex-communist countries of middle Europe, counting latest members of the European Union. Additionally, Poland has announced its intention to adopt a flat tax system. As a result far none of the 'old' EU nations has taken this step, though Ireland is introducing a flat tax for companies (Feldstein). Hypothetically we could calculate an average rate of tax under the current multi-rate system, and charge everyone this rate under the flat tax. Though this would consequence in taxpayers (mainly the lower earners) paying more tax. In practice so most flat tax systems propose a single rate approximately the similar as, or lower than, the existing standard rate. This means that no-one will pay additional tax on the transition to a flat tax. Remove most tax allowances and deductions One of the advantages of the flat rate is its minimalism, in that taxpayers and collectors only have to use one rate of tax in their calculations. This straightforwardness is usually extended by removing mainly of the exact tax deductions surrounded by the accessible system that try to give stipend for exact circumstances or incentives for exacting activities. In part this removal of allowances is sensible since once a single low flat rate is introduced they turn out to be less important (HM Treasury, 2003). Greatly increased personal allowance The individual allowance is the basic amount that every taxpayer is allowed to earn free of tax. The majority flat tax proposals engage an important augment in this amount, first and foremost to make sure that all low earners are better off under the flat tax system (in lots of cases by being taken out of the tax net in total), even subsequent abolishing a lot of the precise allowances (Richard Teather). Apparently a flat tax will decrease the largely tax take, at least originally, unless it is set at the present average rate (in which case a lot of taxpayers would pay additional under the reforms than they do at present). Certainly raising the individual allowance considerably will also result in a substantial loss of tax revenue. But how much The majority people

Iberia Airlines Essay Example for Free

Iberia Airlines Essay i. whom does it serve? In 1944, the civil Aviation Conference was held in Chacigo, where fifty two states siged an International Convention that established the basic principles for the functioning of the air market: each country could negotiate bilateral agreements with other countries in order to regulate the market conditions that would govern air traffic. Before the 1980’s, the planning system used was basically â€Å" point to point†, that is to say, direct flights from one city of origin to another of destination. Instead of planning simple routes, they planned routes from and to the hub airports that came from or were going to other cities. In 1959, ii. What value does it deliver? They used medium and low capacity aircraft on low density routes. Generally they only made domestic flights and rarely international ones. They competed with flag carriers and also with low cost carriers, which had caused a decline in their per passenger income. For that reason, some regional companies decided to go into partnership with flag carriers which results to also low cost carriers. iii. Why does it matter? It matters with the 1.9 billion passengers carried safely by the airline, because of the low cost but efficient carrier. The strategic master plan II 2000-2013, established customer service as one of its priority objectives which in fact result with the passenger’s satisfaction that would be converted to profit. iv. What is its ambition? Its ambition is to suffice the need of its passengers while giving low cost in a way that their service will be still in the international level and not only for domestic purposes with the intention to give a safe and worth it flights. 2. How does the firm create and capture value? i. What is its difference? Its difference is that it gives low cost flights which gives the customers the right satisfaction. They managed flights â€Å"point-to-point†, both scheduled and short haul. They used to regional airports that were cheaper and less crowded than the main airports. Nevertheless, some low-cost carriers such as easyJet and Vueling also used main airports. They had homogenous fleets that facilitated crew information and saved on maintenance costs. They offered one class only with high density seating and no in-flight service. They made sales directly by telephone and internet without issuing tickets. They offered unnumbered seats on the aircraft so as to speed-up the boarding process. They subcontracted many activities such as ground assistance or maintenance. They employees were not union members, and in many cases they contracted for several tasks. Iberia enabled Iberia to ramp up its security without having to take on additional staff. The automatic detections made by Vi-System have resulted in more effective surveillance, managed centrally from the security team’s headquarters, without the need for regular patrols around the large site. ii. How does it deliver its value proposition? Our research indicates that most companies, when asked to construct a customer value proposition, simply list all the benefits they believe that their offering might deliver to target customers. Therefore, the benefits of Iberia are as follows: 1. Non expensive flights 2. Safe flights What makes its strategy superior? Its strategy is superior because they know how to choose their trusted customers. Customers which aims for a low prices offered by the airlines, they made their schedules convenient and frequent, made a good edge by making good previous experience and definitely a direct flight. iii. How does it evolve? It has established partnerships with other flag carriers. Iberia became a partner of European regional airlines although still having independent capitals but it they achieved better service and obtained positive results 8. Describe the here and now condition of the firm as given by your case material PEST Political factors: -Government regulations regarding the safety of the people -Economic policies of government regarding the airline industry, these may include licenses, inspection by the duly authorities that is airline companies follow. Economic factors: Interest rate would impact the cost of capital, the rate of interest being directly proportionate to the to the cost of capital Economic trends act as an indicator of the sustenance and profitability of your business in the chosen region and help you in deciding your marketing strategy. Rate of inflation determines the rate of remuneration of employees and directly affects the price of the restaurant’s products. Again, the proportion between the inflation rate and wages/prices is direct Social Factors: -Certain cultures, like 1st world countries would not choose to go to the Iberia airline just to save money, they would choose airlines which gives better customer satisfaction. Technological Factor: The technology of the Iberia Airlines is very efficient because when the internet was used, the Iberia Airlines quickly took the idea of selling tickets in the internet. Porters 5 forces It is known for a fact the Iberia Airlines is not the first airlines, but it is said by porter that when there’s a new one, there will always be an old one. Its idea of selling tickets cheaper compared to other companies is a stepping stone. The advantage of this airline is that it has cheaper flights compared to other airlines but same service. Its technology is sufficient and ready for competition. In its early age, it is a fact that there were already 1.9 billion customers and a basis to have a reason of better achievement compared to other rivals. The Mckinsey 7S Strategy: to build partnerships among other airlines but still having independent capital to have independent profit Structure: Everyone reports to the CEO, Rafael Sanchez- Luzano Turmo who decides whether the proposals are to be accepted Systems: Iberia Airlines became more established in the world of air travel and began commercial connections six days a week between Madrid and Barcelona. Shared Values: Its goal is to dominate the airline industry Style: Its style is selling cheaper flights but efficient service. Staff: The Iberia airlines provides ground staffs and cabin crew with iPads to improve customer service Skills: Its main objective is to give services to customers who wants a point to point flights (domestic flights) but it is currently serving international flights SWOT: Strength- Low cost price but efficient service Weakness- Too many international airlines. The train industries are also being their rival companies in term of short term travels Opportunities- well known internationally by giving efficient service Threat- insufficient capital, companies that are well known giving services faster and easier in terms of international flights 9. Formulate the vision and mission statement As we move towards our goal of being a world-class airline, we will continue to give extra-ordinary services to attain customer needs. We intend to provide our customers with a efficient though low cost pricing flights and will surely give memorable experience in the flight. Mission statement Our mission is to run a profitable business by providing high-end international airline. To provide quality and efficient service to the customers, we will maintain the low-cost prices of our services. references: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/pest-analysis-example.html http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_05.htm http://hbr.org/2006/03/customer-value-propositions-in-business-markets/ar/1 http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newSTR_91.htm http://www.airlinetrends.com/2012/07/23/iberiacabin-crew-ipad/

Oprah Winfrey Essay Example for Free

Oprah Winfrey Essay Oprah Gail Winfrey is one of the most influential people today despite coming from a broken family and being a rebellious teen in her adolescence (Mowbray 2003). Oprah remains as a symbol of success in the United States and all over the globe as she has been included in the richest African Americans of the 20th century (Noon 2007) and as one of the most philanthropic African American of all time. Oprah started the Angel Network in the year 1998, a program that encourages other people to help those who are underprivileged. To this day, Oprah’s Angel Network has raised over 51,000,000 dollars. 100 percent of the funds generated go directly to various charity programs as Oprah takes care of administrative costs in running the charity. As mentioned earlier, Oprah was included in the list for America’s 50 most generous philanthropists as she has contributed about 250 million dollars to several charities and fundraising programs including a 10 million dollar donation to the victims of Hurricane Katrina. Oprah even visited South Africa in order to raise the people’s awareness regarding the plight of children afflicted with AIDS and stricken with poverty through her show Oprah’s Christmas Kindness. She appealed to televiewers to donate for these children and people around the globe heeded her call and donated over 7,000,000 dollars. Oprah also invested her time and money for the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls in Johannesburg, South Africa which initially started as Oprah’s promise to Nelson Mandela. The academy aims to provide little girls with a safe place to nurture their dreams allow them to be equipped with the necessary education they would need to succeed. Oprah is certainly considered as a god sent to our society as she exemplifies genuine kindness and concern for the underprivileged people and does not hesitate to lend her time and effort to make a positive change in other people’s lives.

Ethical Issues In Marketing Vulnerable Customer Groups

Ethical Issues In Marketing Vulnerable Customer Groups Ethics are defined as the set of principles which guide a persons conduct towards being morally right. When a person is faced with some moral dilemma, the choice that the person makes largely depends upon the values and ethical principles that person holds. It is over and above just being legal. Due to being dependent upon the personal values and principles a person holds, ethical code of conduct cannot be described in absolute terms. Like in all the disciplines of life, recognizing and quantifying what is ethical in marketing and what is not is difficult. In a broader sense, ethics in marketing mean implementing standards of moral rights and wrongs and of fairness in the marketing practices of an organization. The main objective of any business is said to be shareholders wealth maximization. In order to achieve this objective, the organization has to perform better than its competitors and create a competitive advantage for itself. This competitive advantage is mainly dependent upon the perception the customers hold of the products or services of the organization. An organization can create competitive advantage by means of its marketing decisions, behavior and practices. This includes aligning its marketing mix as per the customers requirements. The organization will gain competitive advantage only when the customer will perceive the marketing mix i.e. product, price, place and promotion to be of value. The focus has increased towards being ethical in marketing practices mainly due to two reasons. First, when an organization works ethically, the customers tend to develop more positive perception and attitude towards its products and services and the organization as a whole. This leads to long-term positive relationship with the customers. When the marketing practices of an organization depart from being ethical and the standards that are considered to be acceptable by the society are not followed, the organization taints its own image. It may lead to bad publicity for the firm, dissatisfied customers, lost business, lack of trust, and in some case even a legal action. Second, ethical abuses lead to pressure from either the society or the government for the firms to be more responsible. Since such ethical abuses do occur, people tend to believe that such marketing practices abound. As a result of this, consumer interest groups and some professional associations exert influence on marketing practices and keep them checked. An indicator of this is several regulations that have been designed just to protect the consumers rights. However, in order to be good to some stakeholders the organizations may sometimes make decisions which are not good for other stakeholders and effectively turn against those stakeholders interests. The ethical issues may not be only in terms of consumer, but they may also be for other stakeholders like the suppliers, employees, distribution chain etc. Categorizing Ethical Issues in Marketing Ethical issues in marketing can be categorized as follows: Unethical Product and Distribution Practices Several product-related issues, especially regarding the quality of products and services raise questions about ethical conduct in marketing. The most frequent complaints are voiced regarding the products which are of unsafe nature. Other than this, the problems are regarding poor quality of product or service, product/service not containing what is promoted or the product/service becoming obsolete or going out of style before they are used. The company which is making products that is of poor quality or is potentially unsafe for its consumers may jeopardize its image and develop a reputation for poor quality products or services. It may also put itself in situation of product claims or legal actions. Sometimes, however, the changes in an industry itself occur and the products become obsolete so fast that the consumers may misinterpret it as planned obsolescence e.g. in computer industry. Ethical issues may arise in the distribution process as well. Since the marketing personnel and sales representatives are evaluated mostly on the basis of sales performance, they may face performance pressure and this pressure may lead to ethical dilemmas. This may lead to unethical practices like pushing sale for products with higher commission, exerting influence on vendors to reduce promotions for competitors products, or making false promises regarding shipment dates and quantities. Deceptive Marketing Practices Deception is making the customer believe in the value provided by the product/service which it actually doesnt provide. It may take the form of misrepresentation or omission of key facts or misleading practices. This may also involve omission of important terms and conditions of sale and bait-and-switch selling techniques in which a product/service is offered usually at a lower price and the customers are then encouraged to buy more expensive items. Selling the potentially hazardous products without disclosing the dangers is also considered as deceptive and unethical marketing practice. There may also be packaging deception which is mislabeling regarding the content, weight, size, or use information of the product. Offensive and Objectionable Materials and Marketing Practices The promotional materials, advertisements and publications that are perceived as objectionable may create strong negative reactions for the organization. Such things may be perceived as objectionable or even offensive for some when they contain material which is related to certain stereotypical images, sex, or religious practices. Some things may carry different meanings in different locations and religions which may also be problematic if not handled properly. When people find the products or the promotion and advertising media as objectionable, they may force the vendors to stop carrying the product. So, it is in the interest of the company to screen such things and make them suitable so as to match to the tastes and preferences of their target market. Direct marketing also involves objectionable practices ranging from minor irritants like the frequency and timing of sales calls, letters or e-mails, to the ones that are even illegal. The practices that may raise ethical questions are persistent and annoying telemarketing calls, sales disguised as contests, use of mailing lists containing personal mail IDs, junk mails etc. However, there have been some steps and regulations to control these practices like Do not call registry to avoid telemarketing calls etc., but they are not sufficient and much needs to be done in this regard. Marketing Research and Benchmarking This is another area in which ethical questions may arise. Consumers and entities being benchmarked may consider it an invasion on their privacy. They are usually resistant on giving out personal information. However, in order to obtain correct and better data, researcher may act by unfair means. The same may happen in case of benchmarking. In some cases, the questions may be modified in a way to gain information which the respondent would not be willing to share otherwise. The organizations have to impose ethical standards for themselves in such instances. Ethical Issues in Marketing to Vulnerable Customer Groups The vulnerable customer groups include children, elderly, certain minorities, and religious groups. These customers may be influenced comparatively more easily as they have either less knowledge about these practices or they are vulnerable in terms of their minority or religion. Children have always been important marketing target for certain kind of products. However, in recent times more and more marketing efforts are being focused on children. Children have great influencing power while making any purchase decision. But, generally, their knowledge is less developed and limited about the products, media, advertisements, and the selling strategies adopted by the firms. Due to these reasons, they are more likely to be attracted to the strong images projected towards them and the psychological appeals directed towards them. Ethical questions arise in such environment when children are exposed to questionable practices e.g. advertisements attracting them towards products which are potentially harmful like alcohol and tobacco. The advent of Internet and direct marketing practices to market the products to children has become a major ethical issue in todays environment. There are very less, almost negligible, controls which can supervise the content which goes over the web sites. The marketers can present objectionable and misleading material to the minors without any regulation. Due to all these issues, there is increasing need to control the content being presented to children. It requires higher levels of regulations for marketing to children. Ethical Issues in International Marketing There is a relationship between the culture of a country and the perceived ethical perceptions of the citizens of that country. Due to globalization of the markets and hence the marketing practices, the marketers have to deal with the ethical issues arising in cross-cultural scenario. In this cross-cultural environment, the marketer may have to choose between entirely different set of ethical norms and values. A marketer may not wish to leave her own ethical values and adopt the cross-cultural values and this may pose the ethical dilemma. A practice which is generally accepted as being right in one country may be completely unacceptable in another. The situation gets more complex due to lack of clearly defined ethical standards and code of conduct. Major ethical problems in international marketing are as follows: Small or large scale bribery Bribery is mostly considered to be an unethical practice. However, in some countries it may be acceptable to get some work done or speed up the process. Gifts/Favors/Entertainment These include items like gifts, personal travels etc. which may be intended to get some job done. However, it may be considered just as a gift in some cultures, it may also be considered as being a source of influence in other cultures. Pricing The ethical issues regarding this include unfair price differentials, pricing to eliminate local competition by selling products at prices which are well below those in home country, or adopting pricing practices which are illegal in home country but are legal in host country like price fixing arrangements and forming cartels. Products/Technology This may involve ethical issue of selling the product/service which is banned in home country but not in the host country or which is inappropriate or unsuitable for people in host country to use. Questionable commissions to Channel partners This may include unethical practices like paying unreasonably high commissions to channel partners like dealers, distributors, sales personnel etc. to carry the products of this firm and restricting the products of competing firms. Involvement in political affairs This includes the issues of exertion of political influence by multinationals, or indulging in marketing practices in countries which are at war with the home country. Cultural differences There may be potential misunderstandings as some practices may be considered as right in one culture and immoral or even illegal in another. Reasons behind Ethical Issues in Marketing For any ethical issue arising in marketing, first we need to understand the reason of its emergence. Following are the reasons or ethical dilemmas or tensions due to which ethical issues arise: Consumer Autonomy vs. Marketing Effectiveness The consumer should be autonomous and should be allowed to make free choice about the product/service. At the same time, the marketing effort should be effective which means that it should help the organization to achieve the intended financial results and to do so affect the consumer behavior. Most of the times, the effectiveness criteria which can be described as achievement of sales goals takes preference over the consumer autonomy. The problems arising out of this type of tension may include misleading advertisements, concealment or misrepresentation of critical information etc. This can best be explained by the example of Amazon.com which offered different prices to different customers on the same day. The concept of differential pricing is perfectly in sync with the marketing effectiveness. However, it was against the concept of consumer autonomy. Consumer Choice vs. Consumer Protection Consumers should be given alternatives to choose from as per the consumer choice concept. Consumer protection says that the consumer should be protected from abuse. Consumers may not always choose the product which is good for them. This is especially true for consumers like children, elderly or poverty-stricken. Target marketing to such vulnerable consumers is an example where these two goals diverge. Target marketing is a core concept of marketing. However, when it involves vulnerable consumer segment, it may attract criticism. This raises a question that the product is serving the distinct needs of the segment or taking advantage of their vulnerability. Consumer Satisfaction vs. Revenue Growth Firms should increase their profits and they should also focus on delivering satisfaction to their customers. Most of the times these two objectives can go hand-in-hand. However, sometimes these objectives diverge because fulfilling the requirements and obligations of current customers may come in way of incremental revenue generation. E.g. If a firm discovers a fault in its product, should it recall it, offer free or discounted replacement or use the same resources for further revenue generation. If a recall is not done it may cause reduction in customer satisfaction. There have been several instances in which companies have forsaken their revenues for customer satisfaction. The latest example in this can be taken from Honda recalling almost 7 lakh Jazz and City cars globally due to a defect. However, there have also been the cases where companies chose not to act even after detecting the defect and the customers have suffered due to this. Customer Participation vs. Total System Efficiency As per the marketing theory, entire marketing process from product development to communication and distribution should be made as efficient as possible. It also says that the consumers should participate in the process. However, to gain more efficiency, the processes require standardization which may not be quite engaging for the customers. Customer Welfare vs. Price Discrimination In industries having high fixed costs and expiring capacities, like airlines, hotels etc., price discrimination is very important to maintain profitability. In such cases, the firms should try to capture the consumer surplus by exercising price discrimination. On the other hand, the firm should also contribute to consumer welfare and price discrimination is believed to reduce this consumer welfare as it results in increased price dispersion for the products/services. Ethical issues such as predatory pricing occur due to this reason. Predatory pricing initially offers lower prices to the customers, but subsequently it leads to reduced innovation, variety and increased prices. Selling branded goods at price premium is also considered as being an ethical issue due to this particular reason. Employee Satisfaction vs. Short-Term Profit Employee satisfaction has often been related to customer satisfaction which in turn leads to the success of an organization. If the organization maintains conditions such as ethical climate in the organization, then it may lead to improved employee satisfaction and service quality. However, this may come in conflict with the profit goal of the organization to maintain its competitive advantage. This may lead to situations where companies take advantage of their employees, avoid safety and health standards and go against labor unionization. There have been cases when companies have put the health and safety of their employees just in order to maintain their profits and earnings. Collaborative Supplier Relationships vs. Short-Term Cost Control Longer term relationships with suppliers enhance the firms results. The smaller the number of suppliers, i.e. the more collaboration a company has with its suppliers, the better the results of a firm are. However, the mass merchandisers take so much margin out of small suppliers that the small suppliers are forced to leave the business. Hence, such things lead to ethical issues. Changing Perception to Resolve the Ethical Issues in Marketing Ethical issues cannot be resolved easily due to the fact that there are no concrete guidelines regarding what is ethical and what it not. However, a marketer may try to resolve the ethical dilemmas she faces by applying some logics which are different from generally followed logics. Following are some of the ways that may help in resolving some of the ethical issues arising in marketing: Changing perception about the unit of exchange Changing perception about unit of exchange between the organization and consumer from just being a product or service to the benefit of than product or service may help a company make better ethical choice. Where a product focus makes a company think that since the product is intended for a particular segment, it will always provide benefit to the segment, a benefit focus makes the company think in terms of actual benefit that is being provided to its consumers. E.g. while marketing an alcoholic or tobacco product; the marketer may think that there is a good demand for the product, so the consumer should be provided with additional choice. However, when the focus is on benefit being provided to the consumer, the company may take responsible action like also providing information about the health hazard of such products. With this logic, a firm would not sell a potentially harmful product to its customers with conviction that they are do ing it for harmful purposes. Customer as a Co-Creator of Service Generally a customer is regarded as only a recipient of products or services. The marketer segments the customer, places its products, and distributes and promotes to the customers. However, if the marketer involves the customer and does things in interaction with the customer it may work to reduce two potential ethical dilemmas of consumer autonomy vs. marketing effectiveness and consumer participation vs. total system efficiency. When the customer is working in collaboration with the marketer, more transparency can be introduced which will further lead to marketing efficiency. E.g. in case of differential pricing, with collaborative actions more transparent discounting may be introduced which will further allow the customers to make informed choices. Such an approach makes sure that deception or any other type of manipulation with consumers judgment doesnt happen. When the consumer is co-creator of service, the perception of marketer will shift from making the process as efficient as possible to making it of more value to the customer. Value determination from producer to consumer Recognizing the fact that value is determined by the consumers may help the firms decide between societal benefits and mere profit maximization. This helps in resolving the ethical dilemmas of consumer welfare and price discrimination. The companies may look closely at the totality of their value proposition including all its consequences like social and environmental consequences. Instead of focusing on the product and its functional benefits, the value is determined from the perspective of consumer. Here, as long as the price discrimination is transparent, the choice made by the customers reflects the perceived value she attached with the choice. It reflects the notion of consumer welfare in the terms of customers perceived value of status, quality, convenience, innovation, variety and assurance. This logic also shows that the price premiums charged by companies are evidence of customers willingness to pay more for the trust inspired by the brand name. Firm-Customer Interaction As per this concept, the customers should be active participants instead of just being acted upon. This reduces the tension between the goals of satisfying current customers and working for incremental revenues. It also works to reduce the firm-supplier tension of collaborative relationships and profit maximization. These ethical dilemmas get diluted because the firm recognizes the value of customer relationships and this is willing to invest in the same. An example of this is the implied meaning of a brand as being a promise. There is a moral obligation for a company to deliver what a brand promises. Failure to deliver that value may harm the consumer perception and hence the firm-customer relationship. On the other hand, fulfillment of this leads to the strengthened relationship between the firm and the consumer. Recognizing the source of economic growth Traditionally, the firms consider the wealth to be the things which they own i.e. the resources which can be acted upon. However, the firms should consider that the main source of their economic growth is the skills and knowledge of the employees which act on these resources. This recognition may help in reducing the ethical dilemma of employee satisfaction vs. short-term profit. What an organization should do? Following are some guidelines that an organization may adopt in order to be ethical in its marketing practices: Take responsibility First and foremost, an organization should be able to take the responsibility of its actions. The organization should make sure that any marketing decisions and actions meet the customers needs and are able to satisfy them. In addition to this, these marketing decisions and actions should also cater to the broader needs of the society. The responsibility also extends to the employees and other organization that the firm deals with like suppliers or dealer agencies. The organization should not choose to encourage the unethical behavior in terms of any of these stakeholders. Recognize your customers rights Any organization has specific duties towards its customers: The customers should be able to expect that the products and services they intend to use are fit accordingly. The communication regarding the products or services should not be deceptive. The organization should intend to work in good faith. The organization should have appropriate policy to handle the grievances a customer might have. The organization should be considerate about the rights and interests of vulnerable groups and should not exploit them. Balance the Customer Interests with Marketing Needs Marketing has a number of objectives ranging from providing information about the product/service, stimulating the demand and boosting the sale, emphasizing the product value and differentiating the product from those of competitors. Hence, it may get difficult for an organization to strike a balance between these objectives of marketing with the ethical commitment to the consumer for providing honest, clear and unambiguous information. The situation may be aggravated if the business conditions are not good. However, the organization should focus on the long-term benefits in terms of better branding and customer loyalty while taking decisions on ethical issues. Recognize the inherent possibility of Ethical Issues Ethical issues arise when the interests and viewpoints of different stakeholders like the organization itself, customers, employees, and society etc. clash. Such issues are, however, very prominently inherent in certain industries or with certain kind of products e.g. tobacco and alcohol products. The organization should consider whether to advertise for them, to what extent to advertise and what the target customers for the advertisements should be. But, in such industry, no matter what decision an organization takes, it may have to bear the brunt of social ethicality merely be being in the particular industry. Be Environment-Friendly Green issues have come to prominence and have become major point of concern in recent times. Several organizations have made changes in their methods in order to be environment friendly. Some have even adopted special practices to give back to the environment. However, when the organizations try to improve the perception of their products/services by communicating these practices to the customers and other stakeholders they tend to get skeptical about the motives and claims of the organization. The organization should be able to promote such motives and claims so these are accurate and are able to be substantiated. Importance of Corporate Social Responsibility Conventionally, customers are primarily influenced by the product/service features, price and availability while making a choice about the product/service. However, with growing concerns about sustainable practices, environment-friendliness and social responsibility, there is one more dimension which has started influencing customer decisions. This dimension is of the policies a company adopts for its products and services. Customers are getting increasingly sensitive about the production processes, and the level of social responsibility with which organizations deal with their employees, invest their money, or indulge in other activities. Customers tend to prefer the products/services from a company which is relatively more socially responsible. Hence, it is a benefit for the organization to be ethically correct for its customers. In order to gauge the level of social responsibility of the organization, it should consider following factors: Are the products safe and being manufactured with sustainable materials, processes and under responsible conditions? Are the advertising practices being followed honest, clear and socially acceptable? Does the product provide value for money to the customers along with providing profits to the organization? Is the organization indulging in unethical selling practices? Does the organization ensure fair access to its products and services through its distribution channels? Is it easy for customers to get their issues resolved and does the organization meet customer requirements? Review all the aspects of marketing The organization should review all aspects of marketing including product design, pricing, distribution and promotion. Product Design and Development The organization needs to consider how the product will be produced i.e. the methods of manufacturing, materials and other resources to be used in the production. The company should assess whether the all these things including the production process are safe or they have any impacts on society or environment. The organization should also consider the potential use of the product/service. It needs to consider whether the product has the potential of being exploited and misused. The organization should take into consideration, the disposal of the product after it has been used. Pricing The prices of the products/services should provide value to the customers. It should not necessarily be the lowest price on the market. However, the company should be able to convey the value to the customers that they are getting for the price they pay. Packaging and Labeling Packaging has an important role in terms of brand identity and is very critical for sale. However, there are growing concerns with regards to packaging due to environmental impacts of the discarded packaging. The organization should also ensure that the labeling provides clear information regarding the use of the products. If there are some potential health or safety hazards associated with the product, they should be clearly brought to notice of the customer through means of labeling. Distribution In terms of distribution, the organization should make sure that the products are freely accessible to the customers without any discrimination e.g. of geographies. If the business is heavily dependent upon retailing, there may be another set of ethical issues that may arise. With growing concentration of retail business, retailers have gained considerable power to exert influence over the customers as well as the suppliers. The retailer may get involved in unethical practices like stocking products for only some of the companies who pay them more margins. All these issues should be tackled carefully and the power of influence should be divided carefully.

Hackers and the Internet :: Cyberspace Essays

Hackers and the Internet Internet Security covers a broad list of topics. I have chosen to cover hackers and their history. I will go through who hackers are and how we define hackers. I will also cover the history of how hackers got started. This was a very interesting topic and may surprise a lot of people who have had misconceptions of what hackers do due to how the are covered by the media. In the 1960’s at MIT a group of curious students, members of the Tech Model Railroad Club, decided to hack into the MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab. At this time hackers were encouraged to explore and were not considered malicious like the hackers the media portrays today. These groups of students were allowed access to the MIT AI Lab by the lab’s director Marvin Minsky. In the 1970’s a trend started with phone hacking. Phreaks exploit phone systems to make free long distance calls. One famous phreak is John Draper, also known as â€Å"Captain Crunch†, made long distance calls for free by blowing a certain tone in a telephone. This tone opened a line on the phone system and he was able to make long distance calls for free. Two names that everyone is familiar with are Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak; these two gentlemen founded Apple Computer. However, what a lot of people did not know is that they were members of Homebrew Computer Club. While being members of this club they began making â€Å"blue boxes†, which are devices used to help phreaks access phone systems. Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak had handles that they were known by and they were â€Å"Berkley Blue† and â€Å"Oak Toebark†. By the late 1980’s computer hacking had grown so much that a magazine was formed called 2600: The Hacker Quarterly. This magazine shares tips on phone and computer hacking. The government responds to this growth by passing the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act and forming the Computer Emergency Response Team. This gives the government more authority in tracking wily hackers. This about the same time that the Media did a lot of coverage on Kevin Mitnik, a well known computer hacker who was convicted of stealing software and was sentenced to one year in prison. By the 1990 the instances were computers were hacked grew exponentially.

Blindness in King Leer Essay -- Shakespeares King Lear

A person’s perception is influenced by his or her character. Because of this subjectivity, there is often a disconnect between how things are perceived and reality. People often see what they want to see or hear what they want to hear. Blindness is literally defined as the inability to see, but it is also defined as â€Å"lacking perception, awareness, or discernment† (New Oxford American Dictionary). In King Lear, Shakespeare illustrates that figurative sight often is more important than the physical ability. Through Shakespeare’s deliberate language and complex characters, he demonstrates that a lack of perception can lead to impulsive decisions that eventually render a tragic demise. In the beginning of the play, King Lear’s vanity, which is arguably one of his fatal flaws (hamartia, as defined by Aristotle) is the character trait that leads to his faulty perception. King Lear wants so badly to hear professions of love that he is unable to differentiate between honesty and dishonesty. However, it is not always clear whether King Lear has â€Å"lost this perception† or is â€Å"unwisely ignoring it† (Bradley). Even in the beginning of the play, it becomes evident that King Lear’s ability to perceive is significantly impaired. When he calls upon his daughters to profess their love in order to receive a share of his kingdom, he is pleased by Goneril’s flowery flattery, although it is clearly hyperbolic: â€Å"Sir, I love you more than word can wield the matter/Dearer than eyesight, space and liberty† (I.i. 60-62). As A.C. Bradley states, â€Å"The rashness of his division of the kingdom troubles us [the readers]† and his â€Å"motive is mainly selfish† (Bradley). King Lear’s infatuation with himself leaves him satisfied with the false professions of love an... ...ome of which are character flaws and some of which are deliberate, that preclude them from comprehending reality. As later seen in the play, Gloucester’s hasty decision to disinherit his son Edgar based on a false perception, led to Gloucester’s ultimate death. Similarly, King Lear’s misperceptions of his children also led to thoughtless decisions that brought about his death. Even though King Lear eventually regained the ability to distinguish between appearance and reality, it was too late. Works Cited Bradley, A.C. â€Å"King Lear.† Shakespearian Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth. Macmillan and Co., London, 1919. Project Gutenberg. Web. â€Å"Blind.† The New Oxford American Dictionary. 3rd ed. 2011. Print. Shakespeare, William, Barbara A. Mowat, and Paul Werstine. The Tragedy of King Lear. New York: Washington Square, 1993. Print.

Ambrose Bierces Chickamauga Essay example -- Ambrose Bierce Chickamau

Ambrose Bierce's Chickamauga Ambrose Bierce’s short story, "Chickamauga," scrutinizes American values, specifically, America’s identifying with the natural world. Bierce is critical of the American association with divine destiny, which has manifested itself throughout history in the form of John Winthrop’s â€Å"City upon a hill† speech, the notion of the â€Å"white man’s burden,† and Manifest Destiny. American history, in the scope of the short story, is one of perceived â€Å"rightly† subjugation of others. Bierce satirizes this philosophy by use of the child as a manifestation of American values that are eventually shown to be feeble and weak. The opening paragraph summarizes American history in abstract terms: â€Å"It was happy in a new sense of freedom from control, happy in the opportunity of exploration and adventure; for this child’s spirit, in bodies of its ancestors, had for thousands of years been trained to memorable feats of discovery and conquest† (455). The diction Bierce uses conveys a sense of warmongering and that war and conquest is what brings about â€Å"memorable feats.† The ever expanding frontier, the cross-continental explorations, and the colonizing of the West, though, are all described by Bierce in terms of a mirthful child going to play in the woods unabated and â€Å"unobserved† (Ibid). Bierce undermines the notion that American conquests in the past were grand exploits of a privileged and godly people. Bierce also uses hyperbole in describing the child’s playing in the woods. Though the child is merely playing war in his mind, Bierce describes him as â€Å"a mightier conqueror† and â€Å"the mightiest† (Ibid). This diction of grandeur is juxtaposed with the rabbit scaring the child away: â€Å"With a startled cry the child... ...nquest do not give triumph to one nation and defeat for another, but instead bring about defeat for all. Thus, Bierce satirizes American culture and the popular beliefs of destiny and natural superiority associated with his time. American history is shown to be nothing more than a deaf and mute child roaming in the wilderness playing war games. The arrogant notion of superiority is described as feeble and ultimately destructive. Bierce calls upon Americans to view themselves with a kind of humility toward the natural world and its it place inside of it; no longer should Americans see themselves as privileged, instead, they should become humbled. Works Cited Bierce, Ambrose. "Chickamauga." The Heath Anthology of American Literature Volume C Late Nineteenth Century 1865-1910. Ed. Suzanne P. Weir. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006. 455-459.

The Definition of Prose

A. DEFINITION OF PROSE Prose  is a form of  language  which applies ordinary  grammatical structure  and  natural flow of speech  rather than  rhythmic structure  (as in traditional  poetry). While there are  critical debates  on the construction of prose, its simplicity and loosely defined structure has led to its adoption for the majority of spoken dialogue, factual discourse as well as topical and fictional writing. It is commonly used, for example, in literature, newspapers,  magazines, encyclopedias, broadcasting, film,  history,  philosophy, law  and many other forms of communication.Prose is a form of writing that does not fall into any particular formal structure and types of prose can include drama, articles, novels, short stories, letters, history, philosophy and biographies. Prose is a term applied to any kind of discourse that is not poetry. This term usually, but not always, refers to written rather than spoken language. As the format of e veryday communication, the term prose can apply to anything from a business letter to a 600-page novel. It may be easier to define prose by examining how it differs from poetry: the distinctions between the two are most evident in the structure.Prose does not have a rhythmical construction like most poetry, nor does it utilize the specific line breaks associated with verse. It does not require the use of rhyming words at the end of lines, and it is does not employ the brevity and economical use of words for which poetry is often known. There are some elements of poetry, however, that prose does utilize. These elements include the use of metaphor, the comparison of two unlike objects, and alliteration — the use of similar sounds at the beginning of words.Prose can also employ imagery, a term for the use of specific details that help to create the concrete visual world in the mind's eye. Imagery is like a painting made out of words. From the Latin words prosa oratio, which mean â€Å"direct speech,† prose is the dominant form in literature. It the accepted mode of writing for novels, short stories, plays and folk tales. This form is also used on the Internet and in everyday business communication B. TYPES OF PROSE There are seven types of prose which is regular speech or writing, not poetry. 1. Short StoryShort Stories are a kind of prose that normally comprises of less than 10,000 to 20,000 words but can be limited to as less as 500 words. This form of prose has been around for thousands of years and probably the oldest example is an Egyptian short story entitled â€Å"The Two Brothers†, from around 3200 B. C. A  short story  is a work of fiction, usually written in  narrative  prose. Often depicting few characters and concentrating a ‘single effect' or mood, it differs from the  anecdote  in its use of  plot, and the variety of  literary techniques  it shares with the more extensive  novel.Although the short story is expressly defined by its length, the precise length of stories that can be considered ‘short' varies between critics and writers, especially when taking account of the diversity of the form across genres. As such, the short story is defined relative to other prose forms in various traditions and styles, with the precise length of each story determined by each author's artistic intent or the requirements of the plot or depiction.Like the novel, the short story tradition has been defined and shaped through the markets available for publication, and thus, the form can be practically traced through the submission guidelines of publishing houses, print and online media that have solicited them. The short story has been considered both an apprenticeship form preceding more lengthy works, and a crafted form in its own right, collected together in books of similar length, price and distribution as novels.Thus, short story writers may define their works as part of the artistic and personal expression of the form. They may also attempt to resist categorization by genre and fixed form, finding such approaches limiting and counter-intuitive to artistic form and reasoning. 2. Factual Prose This is generally used for the writing of novels and short stories. Although examples of this kind of prose has existed throughout history, they did not actually develop into a systematic form until a few centuries ago. 3. LettersLetters are a form of prose that are a written or printed communication addressed to a person or organization which are usually transmitted by mail. 4. Novels Novels are a long story written in prose which gives a lot more freedom to the writer to experiment with lots of different literacy forms in one novel. 5. Diaries Diaries are a record of daily events, appointments, observations, etc. Or a book for keeping such a record and can be used in a personal sense or by a business. Three other kinds of prose are testimonies, journals and the personal essay which are less commonly used. 6. TestimonySome published oral or written autobiographical narratives are considered â€Å"testimonial literature† particularly when they present evidence or first person accounts of human rights abuses, violence and war, and living under conditions of social oppression. This usage of the term comes originally from Latin America and the Spanish term â€Å"testimonio† when it emerged from human rights tribunals, truth commissions, and other international human rights instruments in countries such as Chile and Argentina. One of the most famous, though controversial, of these works to be translated into English is I, Rigoberta Menchu.The autobiographies of Frederick Douglass can be considered among the earliest significant English-language works in this genre. 7. Journal A journal (through French from Latin diurnalis, daily) has several related meanings: * a daily record of events or business; a private journal is usually referred to as a d iary * a newspaper or other periodical, in the literal sense of one published each day * many publications issued at stated intervals, such as magazines, academic journals, or the record of the transactions of a society are often called journals.Although journal is sometimes used as a synonym for â€Å"magazine†, in academic use, a journal refers to a serious, scholarly publication that is peer-reviewed. A non-scholarly magazine written for an educated audience about an industry or an area of professional activity is usually called a professional magazine. 8. Personal essay â€Å"For more than four hundred years, the personal essay has been one of the richest and most vibrant of all literary forms. † (The Art of the Personal Essay by Phillip Lopate. ) The personal essay is also one of the most popular forms of creative nonfiction.A personal essay can be based on a personal experience that results in a lesson that you learn. A personal essay can also be a personal opini on about a topic or issue that is important to you. This article defines the personal essay. * Definition of the Personal Essay A personal essay is either a personal narrative in which the author writes about a personal incident or experience that provided significant personal meaning or a lesson learned, or it is a personal opinion about some topic or issue that is important to the writer. * Personal Essay as a Personal NarrativeA personal narrative has the following elements: * It is based on a personal experience in which you have gained significant meaning, insight, or learned a lesson. It can also be based on a milestone or life-altering event. * It is personal narrative. The writer tells the story by including dialogue, imagery, characterization, conflict, plot, and setting. * It is written in the first person. (â€Å"I† point-of-view) * It is an autobiographical story in which the writer describes an incident that resulted in some personal growth or development. * A pe rsonal essay is a glimpse of the writer’s life.The writer describes the personal experience using the scene-building technique, weaves a theme throughout the narrative, and makes an important point. There must be a lesson or meaning. The writer cannot just write an interesting story. * It does not have to be objective. However, the writer must express his/her feelings, thoughts, and emotions. * The writer uses self-disclosure and is honest with his/her readers. * The writer writes about a real life experience. The incident or experience must have occurred. The writer must use fact and truth. * The writer must dramatize the story by using the scene building technique.A scene includes setting/location, intimate details, concrete and specific descriptions, action, and often dialogue. * The Personal Essay as a Personal Opinion A personal essay can also be an opinion piece, an opinion that is based on a particular political or social concern or topic of interest. In this type of p ersonal essay, the writer can states the problem, provide solutions, and then write a conclusion—which must state an important point. Whatever the writer discusses, the topic is of interest to the writer. The writer frequently seeks to explain the truth or reality has he/she views it. Sometimes the writer ponders a question.Other times the writer explores a topic from his own perspective. The writer must not lecture, sermonize, or moralize. In other words, the writer must present his/her opinion in such a way that allows the readers decide for themselves. In Writing Life Stories, author Bill Roorbach provides an excellent definition of the personal essay, one that is based on a personal opinion. He states that the personal essay that is based on a personal opinion has these attributes: * A personal essay is a conversation with your readers. * The personal essay is an informed mixture of storytelling, facts, wisdom, and personality. The personal essay examines a subject outsid e of yourself, but through the lens of self. * The subject of the personal essay may be the self, but the self is treated as evidence for the argument. * Passages of narrative often appear but generally get used as evidence in the inductive argument. * The personal essay strives to say what is evident, and to come to a conclusion that the reader may agree or disagree. * A personal essay can wonder through its subject, circle around it, get the long view and the short, always providing experience, knowledge, book learning, and personal history.It should also be noted that a personal essay doesn’t need to be objective. It can be purely subjective. You don’t have to prove a point or show both sides of the argument. But you must express your own personal feelings, thoughts, and opinions on a topic or issue in a logical manner. * Subject for the Personal Essay Your subject can be about anything that you are passionate about. You can write about a â€Å"turning point† in your life, or a milestone, or adversity, such as death, illness, divorce. The subject you choose must have provided you with significant personal meaning or a lesson that you have learned.But, keep in mind, you are not just reflecting or remembering, you are going to make a point, some universal truth that your readers can appreciate. Otherwise, your story is just a story. So, write about the following: * Personal experience * Incident * Anecdote * Topic * Issue * A memory Your subject can also be a personal opinion on an issue or concern that is important to you, such as the garbage strike, crime, or unemployment. C. THE ELEMENTS OF THE SHORT STORY 1. PLOT The term short story is a relatively recent one. For example, Nathaniel Hawthorne 1837 collection of stories was titled Twice Told Tales.Today, the term tale suggests a simple narrative, told in chronological order. In the past, a short work was sometimes called a sketch. Today, sketch implies the narration of only single bri ef scene. Plot has been defined as â€Å"an author’s careful arrangement of incidents in a narrative to achieve a desired effect. The description of plot structure demonstrates how authors develop their stories: the discussion of techniques reveals how authors vary the chronology, provide hints of future action, sustain interest, and introduce the idea of chance or fate in the character’s lives. CAUSALITY A plot is a series of actions, often presented in chronological order, but the ingredient a plot has that a story lacks is causality. In a narrative with a plot, there is little that happens without a cause. * CONFLICT Even with the addition of causality, however, the concert ticket anecdote lacks another important ingredient. Traditionally, plots grow out of a conflict- an internal or an external struggle between the main character and an opposing force. When a story includes internal conflict, the main character is in conflict with himself or herself.In contrast, a n external conflict can occur between the central character and either another character, society, or natural source, including fate. The most common external force is another character. * PLOT STRUCTURE In literature, exposition refers to the explanatory information a reader needs to comprehend the situation in the story. Exposition establishes the setting, the major characters and some minor ones, the situation, and any necessary background information about what happened before the story began. The initiating incident is the event that changes the situation established in the exposition and sets the conflict in motion.The rising action, various episodes occur that develop complicate. In the rising action, various episodes occur that develop, complicate, or intensify the conflict. Climax has been defined in a number of ways: the point of greatest conflict, the emotional high point, the turning point in the plot, or the point at which one of the opposing forces gains the advantage. The events that follow the climax are known as the falling action. The falling action leads into the resolution or denouement of the story. The term resolution sometimes refers to all the events that follow the climax, including the denouement. . SETTING In the days of King Alfred there lived a poor woman, whose cottage was in a remote country village, many miles from London. Thus begins the old nursery tale â€Å"Jack and the Beanstalk. † The sentence describes the setting of the tale-that is, the time (in the days of King Alfred) and the place (a cottage in a remote country village far from London). Setting is so important that some readers base their literary likes and dislikes largely on the environment in a work-the future, early Rome, the English countryside, Los Angeles in the thirties, Detroit today, Cairo yesterday. ASPECTS OF SETTING Setting can be general (a city in the Midwest in the late nineteenth century), a specific (a three-story mansion on Pine street in Ch icago in 1885), or very detailed (the darkened parlour of that mansion at four o’clock on the first Tuesday in December). Setting usually functions as more than a backdrop for a story, however. * PURPOSES OF SETTING Setting may serve a number of purposes, such as influencing action, defining character, and contributing to mood. 3. CHARACTER As a literary term, a character is a person created from a work or fiction. CLASSIFYING CHARACTER In some cases, characters are veiled, autobiographical versions of the author. Often, they are people the author knows or people the author has observed or overheard. While the origin of a character is usually irrelevant, a character’s dimensionality and purpose in the story are important. 1. ) Round and Flat Character Round character is three dimensional character complexes enough to be able to surprise the reader without losing credibility. In contrast, a flat character is one whom Forster deems incapable of surprising the reader. ) M ajor and Minor Characters The term protagonist refers to the main or central character in fiction. Protagonist is an ancient Greek word for the central character of a drama. Rather, a more neutral and accurate word to describe the protagonist’s opponent is antagonist. Like protagonist, many antagonists will also be round characters, though it is possible for an antagonist to be flat character. Together, the protagonists and antagonists comprise the major characters. Characters other than major characters are classified as minor characters.A stereotyped character represents a category of people. The word stereotype comes from printing and refers to a metal mold used to mass produce duplicates of printing type. A final character category of character might be termed the piece of furniture character. 3. ) Active and Static Characters Another way to classifying characters is to label them as active (or dynamic) or static. An active character is one who changes because of what hap pens in the plot. Static characters, however, remain unchanged; their character is the same at the end of the story as at the beginning. . POINT OF VIEW AND TONE Point of view is the vantage point from which an author tells a story. There are two main points of view : first person ( I ) and third person ( he, she , they ) , but there are variations within these point of view. a. ) First Person (I) The â€Å"I† narrator is not the author. Instead, the author creates a persona or mask through which he or she tells the story. The â€Å"I† story may be a character in the story. IF there’s no â€Å"I’s,† the story is probably told from the third person point of view. b. ) Third PersonThe Third person point of view may be omniscient (in literally means â€Å"all knowing†): that is, may reveal the thoughts of all or most of the characters. In contrast, limited omniscient point of view focuses on the thoughts of a single character. One type of limit ed omniscience is the objective point of view, in which the author makes no commentary but records only those details that can be seen and heard, rather as a newspaper reporter does. Long works of fiction are often told from several points of view, but short stories are commonly presented from a single point of view. B. ToneTone in writing is somewhat like tone of voice in speech. Tone in writing is the author’s attitude towards the characters, the topic, or the readers, as expressed by the narrator, and it may come across in number of ways Tone in writing can be, among other thing, serious, introspective, satirical, sad, ironic, playful, condescending, formal and informal. Tone is achieved through descriptive details of setting and character, through dialogue, and through the narrator, direct comment and author tone is necessarily the same throughout a work, although in a short story, the same tone is usually maintained throughout. . Tone and Mood The terms tone and mood are sometimes confused. While tone conveys the author’s attitude, mood refers to the atmosphere in a story. Atmosphere may be mysterious, horror-filled, or serene. While both the tone and the mood of a story maybe the same (both may be sad, for example), it is usually common to distinguished between these to terms. Also, the mood of a story is not necessarily the same throughout. The climax may bring about a change from despair to triumph, or from anxiety to relief or from any mood another. b. Determining ToneOne way of determining the tone of the story his to decide what effect the story has on you. For example, if the author seems sympathetic or hostile to a character, you likely will be to. If the authors tone seems aloof, you may fill a corresponding aloofness. If the author tone is lightly satirical, the effect is likely to be amusement or a sense that the author satire is well aimed. 5. THEME Theme is an author’s insight or general observation about human nature or the human condition that is conveyed through characters, plot, and imagery.If you examine carefully these two quotations expressing theme, you should deduce two important clues to the nature of a theme statement: first, it is presented in a complete sentence, and second, its contents is debatable. a. Particularity and Universality Particullary refers to the uniqueness or singularity of a work of fiction. Universality, on the other hand, refers to the relevance or applicability of a fictional work to large groups of people across time and place. b. The roots of theme c. Locating theme Just focus first on elements of each story as you read.Examine those elements closely, rereading as needed. From the factual details of plot (especially conflict), character, and setting (especially imagery), clues to the author’s debatable opinion will emerge. d. Formulating a theme statement 1. Expressing theme as multiple statements. 2. Avoiding excessive theme statement. 6. STYLE Style is a w riter’s characteristic way of saying things. It is a product of both the character of the writer as an individual and the choices that he or she makes concerning diction , imagery, syntax and variety, and organizational structure. . Diction Diction refers to a writer’s choice of words. The words chosen can be described as general or specific ( tree versus weeping willow ) ; formal or informal ( â€Å" How do you do† versus â€Å"Hello† ); abstract or concrete ( honor or brotherhood versus desk ) ; common ( drat ); jargon ( any words understood by members of a specialized group such as doctors, teachers, astronauts ) ; Latin- based or Anglo-Saxon words ( make a hotel reservation versus book a room). Whatever the choice, the author’s dixtion needs to be both clear and appropriate.However, that in fiction the author’s diction does not need to be grammatical to be clear or appropriate. b. Imagery and symbol In literature, imagery extends to all the senses-sight, taste, smell, touch, and hearing. Imagery is also associated with figures of speech such as metaphor, personification, simile and others. A symbol is anything that signifies or stands for something else. In literature, symbol is anything concrete-an object, a place, a character, an action-that stands for suggest something abstract. c. SyntaxSyntax or sentence structure is the pattern or arrangement of individual words and phrases. A writer’s style also grows out of the mixture and variety of sentence patterns used in the writing. d. Organizational structure The organizational structure of most fiction is chronological: stories typically begin with exposition that established the setting, the chief characters, and the situation, including the conflict. 7. POPULAR SECTION a. Westerns The western story is a unique genre because the American frontier was a unique setting.Full of danger, hardship, beauty and the promise of wealth (or at least one’s own plo t of land), the frontier meant the opportunity to achieve the genuine independence. b. Detective and mystery A fiction that involves the unraveling of some puzzle or secret or crime is called a mystery. The classic detective story involves a police, private or amateur detective who investigates a crime and through observations, questioning, and deduction identifies the motive and the criminal from among a limited group of suspect. c. Fantasy and science fictionAll fiction is imaginary, but some of it can both be set in this world or in other world as we know it. Fantasy and science fiction can both be set in this world or in other worlds anytime. Both can and often do have social and political meaning. Fantasy has elements of the supernatural or magic. Science fiction, as its name suggest, its rooted in scientific and technological truths or in the possibility of scientific advancements based on what is known. Ghost and horror are stories that scare people have been popular and prof itable for a long time. References 1.Jane Bachman Gordon and Karen Kuehner, Fiction : The Elements of Fiction ( United States of America :1999 . PREFACE Alhamdulillahirobbilamin Gratitude belongs only to Almighty God, who has given his affection and the author for taking the time to complete the Introduction to Literature paper under the title â€Å" Fiction or Prose as Literary Genre â€Å". The authors also thank for several people who have helped in the completion of this paper. Papers on â€Å"Fiction or Prose as a Literary Genre† was filled to fulfill one presentation task Introduction to Literature course.Writing this paper aims to provide further information about the literature as an esthetic and study and the challenges to be faced in the future. This paper was presented several efforts that can be done to maintain the Introduction to Literature. The authors are aware that this paper is still far from perfect. Therefore, the authors expect criticism and suggestions either in writing or orally from the lecturer of Introduction to Literature course DR. Alek ,M. Pd so writers can develop science , especially the science of Introduction to Literature.